Body shape adaptations. Forms of adaptations. Drivers for Change

brown or green twig, and orthoptera insects imitate the leaf. Benthic fish (e.g. flounder) have a flat body.

  Protective coloration

Allows you to be invisible among the surrounding background. Thanks to the protective color, the body becomes difficult to distinguish and, therefore, protected from predators. The eggs of birds laid on sand or on the ground are gray and brown with spots, similar to the color of the surrounding soil. In cases where eggs are not accessible to predators, they are usually colorless. Butterfly caterpillars are often green in the color of leaves, or dark in the color of bark or earth. Bottom fish are usually colored the color of a sandy bottom (stingrays and flounders). At the same time, flounders also have the ability to change color depending on the color of the surrounding background. The ability to change color by redistributing pigment in the integument of the body is also known in terrestrial animals (chameleon). Desert animals, as a rule, are yellow-brown or sand-yellow in color. The monotonous protective coloration is characteristic of both insects (locusts) and small lizards, as well as large ungulates (antelopes) and predators (lion).

Caution coloring

Warns a potential enemy of the presence of protective mechanisms (the presence of toxic substances or special defense organs). The warning coloring emits bright spots or strips of poisonous, stinging animals and insects (snakes, wasps, bumblebees) from the environment.

  Mimicry

Mimicry is the result of homologous (identical) mutations in different species that help unprotected animals survive. For imitative species, it is important that their numbers be small compared to the model they imitate, otherwise the enemies will not develop a stable negative reflex to the warning color. A low number of mimicking species is supported by a high concentration of lethal genes in the gene pool. In a homozygous state, these genes cause lethal mutations, as a result of which a high percentage of individuals do not survive to a mature state.

The grand inventions of the human mind never cease to amaze; fantasy has no limit. But what nature has created for many centuries surpasses the most creative ideas and designs. Nature has created more than one and a half million species of living individuals, each of which is individual and unique in its forms, physiology, and fitness for life. Examples of adaptation of organisms to constantly changing living conditions on the planet are examples of the creator’s wisdom and a constant source of tasks for solving to biologists.

Adaptation means fitness or addiction. This is a process of gradual degeneration of the physiological, morphological or psychological functions of a creature in a changing environment. Both individual individuals and entire populations undergo changes.

A striking example of the adaptation of direct and indirect is the survival of the plant and animal world in the zone of increased radiation around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Immediate adaptability is characteristic of those individuals who managed to survive, get used to and begin to breed, some did not pass the test and died (indirect adaptation).

Since the conditions of existence on Earth are constantly changing, the processes of evolution and fitness in living nature are also a continuous process.

A fresh example of adaptation is the change in the habitat of a colony of green Mexican parrots. Recently, they have changed their habitat and settled in the vent of the Masaya volcano, in an environment constantly saturated with sulfur dioxide of high concentration. Scientists have not yet given an explanation for this phenomenon.

Types of adaptation

A change in the whole form of the organism’s existence is a functional adaptation. An example of adaptation, when a change in conditions leads to the mutual adaptation of living organisms to each other, is a correlative adaptation or co-adaptation.

Adaptation can be passive when the functions or structure of the subject occur without his participation, or active when he consciously changes his habits to match the environment (examples of people's adaptation to environmental conditions   or society). There are times when the subject adapts the environment to his needs - this is an objective adaptation.

Biologists divide the types of adaptation according to three criteria:

• Morphological.
• Physiological.
• Behavioral or psychological.

Examples of adaptation of animals or plants in their pure form are rare, most cases of getting used to new conditions occur in mixed species.

Morphological adaptations: examples

Morphological changes are changes in the shape of the body, individual organs, or the entire structure of a living organism that have occurred during evolution.

The following are morphological adaptations, examples from animal and plant worldthat we take for granted:

• The degeneration of leaves into thorns in cacti and other plants of arid regions.
• Tortoise shell.
• Streamlined body shapes of residents of water bodies.

Physiological adaptations: examples

The physiological device is a change in a number of chemical processes occurring inside the body.

• Emitting a strong odor to attract insects contributes to dusting.
• The state of suspended animation, in which the simplest organisms are able to enter, allows them to maintain vital activity after many years. The oldest breeding bacterium is 250 years old.
• The accumulation of subcutaneous fat, which is converted into water, in camels.

Behavioral (psychological) adaptations

WITH psychological factor   more related examples of human adaptation. Behavioral characteristics are characteristic of flora and fauna. So, in the process of evolution, a change in the temperature regime causes some animals to hibernate, birds to fly south to return in the spring, trees to drop foliage and slow down the movement of juices. The instinct of choosing the most suitable partner for procreation drives the behavior of animals in mating season. Some northern frogs and turtles completely freeze for the winter and thaw, come to life with the onset of heat.

Drivers for Change

Any adaptation processes are a response to environmental factors that lead to environmental change. Such factors are divided into biotic, abiotic and anthropogenic.

Biotic factors are the influence of living organisms on each other, when, for example, one species that serves as food for another disappears.

Abiotic factors are changes in the surrounding inanimate nature when the climate, soil composition, water availability, and solar activity cycles change. Physiological adaptations, examples of the influence of abiotic factors are equatorial fish, which can breathe both in water and on land. They are well adapted to conditions when the drying up of rivers is a frequent occurrence.

Anthropogenic factors - the influence of human activity, which changes the environment.

Habitat adaptations

• Illumination. In plants, these are separate groups that differ in the need for sunlight. In open spaces, light-loving heliophytes live well. In contrast, they are sciophytes: plants of thickets, feel good in shaded places. Among animals, there are also individuals whose activity is designed for an active lifestyle at night or underground.
• Air temperature.   On average, for all living things, including humans, the optimal temperature range is considered to be from 0 to 50 ° C. However, life exists in almost all climatic regions of the Earth.

Opposite examples of adaptation to abnormal temperatures are described below.

Arctic fish do not freeze due to the development of a unique antifreeze protein in the blood, which prevents the blood from freezing.

The simplest microorganisms were found in hydrothermal springs, the water temperature in which exceeds a boiling point.

Hydrophyte plants, that is, those that live in or near water, die even with a slight loss of moisture. Xerophytes, on the contrary, are adapted to live in arid regions, and die in high humidity. Among animals, nature has also worked to adapt to an aquatic and anhydrous environment.

Human adaptation

Man's abilities to adapt are truly grandiose. The secrets of human thinking are far from fully disclosed, and the secrets of people's adaptive ability will for a long time be a mysterious topic for scientists. The superiority of Homo sapiens to other living beings - in the ability to consciously change their behavior to the requirement of the environment or, conversely, the world   according to your needs.

The flexibility of human behavior is manifested daily. If you give the task: "give examples of the adaptation of people", the majority begins to recall exceptional cases of survival. These are rare cases, and in new circumstances it is common for a person daily. We try on a new environment at the time of birth, in kindergarten, school, in a team, when moving to another country. It is this state of acceptance of new sensations by the body that is called stress. Stress is a psychological factor, but nevertheless, under its influence, many physiological functions change. In the case when a person accepts the new environment as positive for himself, the new state becomes familiar, otherwise stress threatens to become protracted and lead to a number of serious diseases.

Human adaptation mechanisms

There are three types of human adaptation:

• Physiological. The simplest examples are acclimatization and adaptability to changing time zones or daily working hours. In the process of evolution, various types of people have formed, depending on the territorial place of residence. Arctic, alpine, continental, desert, equatorial types differ significantly in physiological indicators.
• Psychological adaptation.   This is a person’s ability to find moments of understanding with people of different psychotypes in a country with a different mentality. It is common for a reasonable person to change his established stereotypes under the influence of new information, special cases, stress.
• Social adaptation.   A type of addiction that is peculiar only to man.

All adaptive types are closely interconnected, as a rule, any change in habitual existence causes a person to need social and psychological adaptation. Under their influence, mechanisms of physiological changes come into effect, which also adapt to new conditions.

This mobilization of all body reactions is called adaptation syndrome. New reactions of the body appear in response to sudden changes in the situation. At the first stage - anxiety - there is a change in physiological functions, changes in the work of metabolism and systems. Next, the protective functions and organs (including the brain) are connected, they begin to turn on their protective functions and hidden capabilities. The third stage of adaptation depends on individual characteristics: a person either joins a new life and enters into a normal course (in medicine, recovery occurs during this period), or the body does not accept stress, and the consequences take on a negative form.

The phenomena of the human body

In man, nature has a huge margin of safety, which is used in everyday life only to a small extent. It manifests itself in extreme situations and is perceived as a miracle. In fact, a miracle is inherent in ourselves. An example of adaptation: the ability of people to adapt to normal life after removal of a significant part of the internal organs.

Natural innate immunity throughout life can be strengthened by a number of factors or, conversely, weaken with an improper lifestyle. Unfortunately, passion for bad habits is also the difference between a person and other living organisms.

For survival in adverse climatic conditions   Plants, animals and birds have some characteristics. These features are called "physiological adaptations", examples of which can be seen in almost every mammalian species, including humans.

Why is physiological adaptation necessary?

Living conditions in some parts of the world are not very comfortable, however, there are various representatives of wildlife. There are several reasons why these animals did not leave the adverse environment.

First of all, climatic conditions could change when a certain species already existed in the given territory. Some animals are not adapted to migrations. It is also possible that territorial features do not allow migration (islands, mountain plateaus, etc.). For a certain species, the changed living conditions still remain more suitable than in any other place. And physiological adaptation is the best solution to the problem.

What is meant by adaptation?

Physiological adaptation - the harmony of organisms with a specific habitat. For example, a comfortable stay in the desert of its inhabitants is due to their adaptation to high temperatures and lack of access to water. Adaptation is the appearance of certain signs in organisms that allow them to get along with any elements of the environment. They arise during certain mutations in the body. Physiological adaptations, examples of which are well known in the world, are, for example, the ability to echolocation in some animals (bats, dolphins, owls). This ability helps them navigate in a space with limited lighting (in the dark, in water).

Physiological adaptation is a set of body reactions to certain pathogenic factors in the environment. It provides organisms with a high probability of survival and is one of the methods of natural selection of strong and stable organisms in a population.

Types of physiological adaptation

Adaptation of the body is distinguished between genotypic and phenotypic. The basis of the genotypic are conditions natural selection   and mutations that lead to changes in the organisms of the whole species or population. It is in the process of this type of adaptation that modern species of animals, birds and humans were formed. The genotypic form of adaptation is hereditary.

The phenotypic form of adaptation is due to individual changes in a particular organism for a comfortable stay in certain climatic conditions. It can also develop due to the constant exposure to an aggressive environment. As a result, the body acquires resistance to its conditions.

Complex and cross adaptations

Complex adaptations occur in certain climatic conditions. For example, addiction to low temperatures during prolonged stays in the northern regions. This form of adaptation develops in each person when moving to another climatic zone. Depending on the characteristics of a particular organism and its health, this form of adaptation proceeds in different ways.

Cross adaptation is a form of habituation of an organism in which the development of resistance to one factor increases resistance to all factors of this group. The physiological adaptation of a person to stress increases his resistance to some other factors, for example, to cold.

Based on positive cross-adaptations, a set of measures has been developed to strengthen the heart muscle and prevent heart attacks. Under natural conditions, those people who are more often faced with stressful situations in life are less susceptible to the consequences of myocardial infarction than those who led a calm lifestyle.

Types of Adaptive Reactions

Two types of adaptive reactions of the body are distinguished. The first type is called "passive adaptation". These reactions take place at the cellular level. They characterize the formation of the degree of resistance of the body to the effects of a negative environmental factor. For example, change atmospheric pressure. Passive adaptation allows you to maintain the normal functionality of the body with small fluctuations in atmospheric pressure.

The most famous physiological adaptations in animals of a passive type are the protective reactions of a living organism to the effects of cold. Hibernation, in which life processes slow down, is inherent in some species of plants and animals.

The second type of adaptive reactions is called active and involves protective measures of the body when exposed to pathogenic factors. In this case, the internal environment of the body remains constant. This type of adaptation is inherent in highly developed mammals and humans.

Examples of physiological adaptations

The physiological adaptation of a person is manifested in all situations that are non-standard for his environment and lifestyle. Acclimatization is the most famous example   adaptations. For different organisms, this process takes place at different speeds. Some people need several days to get used to the new conditions, many will take months to do this. Also, the rate of addiction depends on the degree of difference with the habitat.

In aggressive habitats, many mammals and birds have a characteristic set of body reactions that make up their physiological adaptation. Examples (in animals) can be observed in almost every climate zone. For example, desert dwellers accumulate stores of subcutaneous fat, which oxidizes and forms water. This process is observed before the onset of a drought.

Physiological adaptation in plants also takes place. But it is passive. An example of such an adaptation is the dropping of leaves by trees when the cold season begins. The places of the kidneys are covered with scales that protect them from the harmful effects of low temperatures and snow with the wind. The metabolic processes in plants slow down.

In combination with morphological adaptation, the physiological reactions of the body provide him with a high level of survival in adverse conditions   and with dramatic changes in the habitat.

A special case of cryptic coloring is painting according to the principle of anti-shade. At aquatic organisms   it manifests itself more often, because light in the aquatic environment only falls from above. The principle of anti-shade suggests a darker color of the upper body and a lighter color - the lower one (a shadow falls on it).

Dissecting coloring Dissecting coloring is also a special case of patronizing coloring, although a slightly different strategy is used. In this case, the body has bright, contrasting stripes or spots. From a distance, it is very difficult for a predator to distinguish the boundaries of the body of a potential victim.

Cautious coloration This type of protective coloration is characteristic of protected animals (such as this nudibranch mollusk, which uses nitric acid to protect against enemies). Poison, a sting or other methods of protection make the animal inedible for the predator, and the color serves to ensure that the appearance of the object is preserved in the memory of the predator in combination with those unpleasant sensations that he experienced when trying to eat the animal.

Threatening coloration Unlike the warning coloration, threatening coloration is inherent in unprotected organisms that are edible from the point of view of a predator. This color is not visible all the time, unlike the warning, it is suddenly shown to the attacking predator in order to disorient it. It is believed that the "eyes" on the wings of many butterflies serve precisely this purpose.

Mimicry Under the term "mimicry" a number of different forms of protective colors are combined, for which there are similarities, organisms, imitation of the coloring of one creature by another. Types of mimicry: 4 Classical mimicry of Bates mimicry 4 Classical mimicry, or Bates mimicry - imitation of an unprotected organism to a protected one; 4 Mimicry Muller 4 Mimicry Muller - similar coloring ("advertising") in a number of species of protected organisms; 4 Mimesia 4 Mimesia - imitation of inanimate objects; 4 Collective mimicry; 4 Collective mimicry - creating a common image by a group of organisms; 4 Aggressive mimicry 4 Aggressive mimicry - elements of imitation of a predator in order to attract prey.

Classical mimicry, or Bates mimicry (Bates mimicry) An unprotected (already - edible) organism mimics the color of a protected (inedible) one. Thus, the stereotype exploited by the simulator, formed in the memory of a predator by contact with a model (a protected organism). In the photo - a fly-fly, which imitates the wasp in color and body shape.

Müller mimicry (Müller mimicry) In this case, a number of protected, inedible species have a similar color (“one advertisement for all”). Thus, the following effect is achieved: on the one hand, the predator does not need to try one organism of each species, the general image of one mistakenly eaten animal will be quite firmly captured. On the other hand, a predator does not have to memorize dozens of different variants of bright warning colors of different species. An example is the similar coloration of a number of species of Hymenoptera.

   Aggressive mimicry In aggressive mimicry, a predator has devices that allow it to attract a potential prey. An example is a clown fish, which has outgrowths on its head resembling worms, and also able to move. The slaves themselves lie at the bottom (she has a great cryptic color!) And awaits the approach of a victim who is searching for food.

The relative nature of fitness. Each of the protective colors cited is adaptive, i.e. useful for organisms only in certain environmental conditions. When these conditions change (for example, the background color for protective coloring), it can even become maladaptive, harmful. Consider in what situations the relative nature of fitness will manifest itself when: 4p4a warning color; 4m4 mimicry of Bates; 4k4 collective mimicry?