Combat stimulants. Berserker (military pharmacology): army stimulants. Wonderful Nuts and Magic Powder

They don’t want to eat and sleep for two days, they don’t feel fatigue and injuries, they can withstand overloads and at the same time they continue to carry out orders of the command, they are aggressive and ready to destroy the enemy. Every soldier with such abilities, which are more similar in description to metal killers from films about the Terminator, dreams of a general.

At all times, warriors tried in different ways to obtain superpowers: someone drank decoctions of special plants, such as wormwood and ginseng, someone ate hallucinogenic mushrooms, and someone performed meditative practices. The effect manifested itself time after time and was not uniform, but time after time the soldiers tried to become stronger, higher, faster.

Progress does not stand still and at the beginning of the XX century the best scientific minds took up the improvement of the qualities of a fighter. So the first mass production combat stimulants were born. The first large-scale use of chemical warfare occurred during the US Civil War. Republicans and Confederates used morphine * - a painkiller extracted from some varieties of poppy - to relieve pain from injuries and, moreover, to get rid of the fear of battle. This invention was greatly facilitated in 1853 by the French surgeon Charles-Gabriel Pravas of injection needles. Later, this substance migrated from America to the battlefields of the First World War, where it was used by soldiers from all sides of the conflict.

However, the negative qualities of morphine soon became apparent - it was highly addictive and even after the end of hostilities the soldiers did their best to get a dose for themselves. The problem of drug addiction was not studied then, so addiction to morphine was called “soldier's disease” and was considered special cases.

The next jump in the development of military pharmacology began with the Second World War. Hitler, who came to power with his theory of racial superiority, needed super-soldiers and he introduced the use of stimulants in the army. The most famous is pervitin *. It is based on amphetamine * - a narcotic psychostimulant that allowed you to stay awake for two days, while doing intensive physical and mental work without loss of quality.

A pack of pills was part of the soldier's standard medical kit. With her, the infantry could make marches at a fast pace up to 60 kilometers per day and then immediately enter the battle. For tankers and pilots, these stimulants were added to chocolate and were called “Pansher Chocolate” and “Fligher Chocolate”, respectively. The scale of production is amazing: from 1939 to 1945, a total of more than 200 million tablets of Pervitin were produced.

Moreover, this stimulant was also on sale for German civilians. According to the leadership of the Third Reich, this was to give energy to simple German workers, providing the needs of the Wehrmacht. Many soldiers, spending their regular supplies of Pervitin, wrote letters home asking them to send them the coveted tablets again.

By the way, stimulants were not alien to the very top elite. Hitler’s personal doctor, Theodore Morel, according to contemporaries, constantly gave the Fuhrer injections with various stimulants. Hitler constantly wondered where Dr. Morel “with his drugs?”

At the end of the war, party bonuses still hoped to win, for which they continued to experiment with substances. So, in the laboratories of Kiel University there was created a tool for soldiers with optimal proportions - one capsule contained 5 mg of cocaine *, 5 mg of morphine painkiller eucodal, 3 mg of pervitin.

After World War II, the Allies “divided” the scientists and some of the pharmacologists joined in similar developments in the Soviet Union. Amphetamine-based drugs were not widely distributed during the war among the Red Army soldiers, including due to poorly established mass synthesis. But since 1946, this process has been mastered and the drug “Phenamine” was developed on the basis of a psychostimulant. Like its foreign counterparts, it positively influenced the stamina, reaction speed and aggressiveness of a fighter, but also possessed already known negative qualities - it was addictive, and with prolonged use it depleted the body's resources.

By the way, Americans used similar stimulants during their military conflicts. During Operation Desert Storm, during the American invasion of the Persian Gulf, a scandal occurred. One pilot said they were being forced to take amphetamine. The command rejected this version, saying that the pilots are doing everything on a voluntary basis. But the publication of a document signed by the pilots exposed their lies - there was a clause that the command could remove the pilot from flying without explaining the reasons if he refused to use stimulants and this happened.

Domestic research does not stand still. In the Moscow district of Sokolniki there is a center for extreme medicine, where they conduct experiments to create a super-pill.

Already, scientists have created such drugs that have all the positive qualities of “Phenamine”, but are spared from the negative. In addition, specially targeted elite special forces created highly targeted stimulants. They significantly increase the body's resources. For example, special tablets have been created that, while maintaining combat readiness, can tolerate lethal doses of radiation, remain in ice water for half an hour, or continue to carry out their tasks for some time even with fatal injuries. It is not necessary to be deceived, after completing a combat mission, a soldier is almost 100% likely to die or become crippled, but these medicines are used only in critical situations.

I would like to add that many of the stimulants are now classified and their effects will not be known to the general public soon.

* substances are narcotic and are prohibited in free circulation in the territory of the Russian Federation.

APPLICATION OF DOPING IN FOREIGN ARMIES

INTRODUCTION

According to US military psychiatrists of World War II, soldiers far from the front line were enthusiastic about displaying miracles of heroism. However, this lasted exactly until the moment when they did not start shooting. In the first battles, about a quarter of the soldiers vomited with fear. Many could not control their intestines, about 10% peed in their pants, and some fled the battlefield right under enemy fire. Only about 2% of those who came under fire could adequately respond to the situation, but they were more or less affected by combat stress. The stock of mental stability for American soldiers during World War II was about 60 days of hostilities.

The military conflicts of the following years, in which the US Armed Forces took part, showed that, despite the almost absolute technical superiority of the US Armed Forces over the enemy, they are an order of magnitude smaller than in the wars of the past, manpower losses and radically changed principles of warfare, the situation with the psychological state of the soldier in battle has not changed significantly.

So, during the analysis of the unsuccessful campaign of the special forces (special forces) of the United States in Somalia, the survivors were asked how they feel about returning to combat positions. Less than 1% answered in the affirmative, and the holders of the Silver Star (a reward for courage) all flatly refused to go into battle. Clever Yankees. Here, the American command again had a question about doping. Only Russians and Jews can fight without doping.

Oddly enough, the psychological equipment of the army also has its psychological disadvantages. Modern weapons  and equipment allows you to conduct combat operations at any time of the day, regardless of weather conditions, which requires military mental stress and work without sleep and rest. The increased intensity of hostilities has a negative impact on the psychological state of the military.

It was noted that as a result of significant combat loads, a person’s reaction speed, ability to recognize targets are significantly reduced, and difficulties arise in choosing the best solution. Stress resulting from fighting and lack of rest affect soldiers and officers so much that, according to US Army psychologists, after a week of hostilities they act worse than if they were drunk or under the influence of drugs. One of the most serious consequences of the resulting fatigue is a sharp decrease in the ability to quickly make responsible decisions about whether the probable target is an enemy soldier, a civilian, or one of his own. As a result, the number of incidents in which civilians or soldiers of friendly forces or their troops were mistakenly killed in recent conflicts has increased significantly.

All this taken together compelled military doctors to look for means to increase the mental and physical performance of military personnel, i.e., psycho-stimulating drugs.

1. PSYCHO-SIMULATING AGENTS

Psychostimulants are substances that stimulate mental processes. There are two groups of psychostimulants: psychomotor and psychometabolic stimulants.

1.1. PSYCHOMORIC STIMULANTS

Psychomotor stimulants include xanthine derivatives - caffeine, imidazole derivatives - etymisole, phenylalkylamines - phenamine (amphetamine), phenylalkylpiperidine derivatives - meridyl, phenylalkylsidnonimine derivatives - sydnocarb and sydnophene. Phenamine, which is produced abroad under the name amphetamine, and its derivatives, we will consider in more detail below. Amphetamines also include ephedrine (phenylmethylaminopropanol), which is close to phenamine in relation to a specific stimulating effect on the central nervous system (CNS), but the latter acts much stronger. Apart is the original domestic drug bemitil, which is a derivative of benzimidazole. He is considered as a representative of a new group - actoprotective drugs.

Psychomotor stimulants are effective in functional disorders of mental activity. They change various indicators of brain activity, which can be recorded using an electroencephalogram.

These drugs increase mental and physical performance, especially against the background of its decrease, weaken the feeling of fatigue, drowsiness. With their admission, people are able to perform mental and physical work longer and better, they have a sense of confidence in their abilities, and motor and speech activity increase.

The most common doping psychostimulants in the army foreign countries  are amphetamine and its derivatives. It should be borne in mind that, according to the classification of the World Health Organization, amphetamines are drugs and their free use is prohibited.

1.2. PSYCHOMETABOLIC STIMULANTS

Psychometabolic stimulants are also called nootropic drugs. Psychometabolic stimulants include preparations of gamma-aminobutyric acid and its analogues, as well as some other compounds. Drugs in this group are effective for organic mental failure. They improve mental functions without noticeable neurophysiological changes.

These drugs include piracetam (nootropil), actually gamma-aminobutyric acid (aminalon, gammalon), sodium salt of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (sodium hydroxybutyrate), phenibut, pantogam, picamilon, pyriditol, acefen. They are all widely used in medical practice.

2. CHARACTER OF ACTION OF PSYCHOSTIMULATORS

Psychostimulants are used by professionals who need to complete any task, no matter how difficult it is. In general, military technologies for the creation of "superhumans" have been developed for more than thirty years. Without them, combat losses would be an order of magnitude higher. Permitted psychostimulating doping is used by people of extreme professions - not only soldiers from special forces, but also rescuers, polar explorers.

2.1. PHYSIOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS OF AMPHETAMINS

Amphetamines, like other psychomotor stimulants, act on the noradrenergic and dopaminergic structures of the brain. Amphetamine has peripheral adrenergic activity (stimulates α- and β-adrenergic receptors).

The peripheral effects of amphetamines are mediated through the release of norepinephrine, which leads to the stimulation of vascular smooth muscle α-adrenergic receptors and cardiac β-adrenergic receptors. As a result of this, amphetamine causes a narrowing of the peripheral vessels and enhances heart contractions, which leads to an increase in systolic and diastolic pressure. Unlike amphetamine, methamphetamine has a more pronounced effect on the peripheral vessels. At the same time, amphetamines relax the muscles of the bronchi, while breathing deepens and ventilation increases. These effects are more lasting, but less pronounced than with adrenaline.

Side effects of these drugs include dry mouth, dilated pupils, and increased heart rate.

Amphetamine has anorexigenic activity, that is, it suppresses appetite and contributes to a more rapid onset of a feeling of satiety with food. For this reason, amphetamine and its analogues are part of a number of weight loss products that are not certified in Russia, and are also found in many homemade “weight loss” drugs sold under the guise of drugs and dietary supplements.

The main physiological manifestations of amphetamines:

Increased heart rate.

Increased breathing.

Fever.

Smooth muscle relaxation: dilated pupils as well as bronchial dilatation, often increasing the need for smoking.

In case of an overdose, the following are possible:

Significant increase in pressure.

Fever.

Collapse.

Heart attack, heart attack.

High doses of amphetamines can cause seizures, stereotypical (compulsively repetitive) movements, or psychosis. If abused, the heart may refuse.

2.2. PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Amphetamine is a powerful CNS stimulant. The stimulating effect of the drug is largely associated with an increase in the release of norepinephrine and dopamine in the central nervous system during its action, with its effect on the stem part of the brain.

After taking amphetamines, an active state occurs in half an hour or an hour, which is accompanied by high spirits. Amphetamines cause an unusual emotional uplift, a mood uplift is combined with a pronounced increase in mental and physical activity, a surge of energy, self-confidence, one's strengths and capabilities. Improving mental and physical performance is confirmed by objective data. With the right dosage, amphetamine, enhancing the processes of excitation in the central nervous system, reduces fatigue, has a general stimulating effect, expressed in the sensation of a surge of strength, vigor, increased performance. In humans, the need for rest and sleep practically disappears. The ability to concentrate increases, appetite decreases. Amphetamines cause a desire for activity, they eliminate the feeling of fatigue, create a feeling of tirelessness, unusual clarity of mind and ease of movement, quick wits. At large doses (100 to 150 mg), strong mental arousal sets in, and active wakefulness can last up to three days, at small doses - 4–8 hours.

Psychomotor stimulants give fantastic powers, the person who takes them feels like a “superman”. And most importantly for the military, amphetamines create a feeling of fearlessness in a person.

There are some differences in the effects of amphetamines. Amphetamine, unlike methamphetamine, in 10% of people causes a paradoxical reaction in the form of drowsiness, lethargy, decreased performance. Amphetamine begins to act and ends abruptly. Methamphetamine acts stronger, but softer and longer.

Amphetamines differ from cocaine in less euphoria and a stronger stimulating effect.

With the systematic use of amphetamines, schizophrenic-like psychoses can develop [Lichko A.E., Bitensky V.S., 1991]. Some amphetamine users report severe headaches with an overdose.

2.3. EFFECTS

At the end of the action of the drug, depression and fatigue almost always follow, which is individual for each person. Amphetamine more often ends the action suddenly. Emotional and physical recovery after about 6 to 8 hours is sharply replaced by exhaustion, a feeling of fatigue, irritability. Unlike amphetamine, the effect of methamphetamine is slow and almost imperceptible.

In general, for all stimulators of this kind, the effect of accumulation of fatigue is characteristic - when you stop taking the drug, you are depressed by the need for food and sleep. This is because stimulants activate the "reserves" of the body and after the cessation of the effect, their recovery is required.

Long-term use of amphetamines can lead to exhaustion, both mental, often manifested in the form of psychoses, and physical, in the form of weakness, severe weight loss. In addition, a possible violation of the kidneys, liver, decreased immunity, impaired vision. Intensive use of amphetamines causes severe depletion nervous system  and a rapid increase in tolerance towards them.

With occasional use, amphetamines do not cause physiological addiction, but only cause mental dependence. In cases of regular use, facts of physiological addiction to drugs have been established.

In addition, with prolonged use, amphetamines can cause depressed stateas well as side effects such as paranoia and hallucinations, aggression, craving for violence, nervousness and exhaustion of the nervous system.

3. VALUE OF DOPING FOR THE ARMY

Physicians and the military have long been trying to use hidden reserves to create "superhumans" who do not know fear and pain, survive in the most difficult conditions and are able to do without rest and food for several days in a row. With the help of psychotropic drugs, it is possible to create such a super-soldier who is not afraid of either cold, hunger, or other "hardships and deprivations."

In addition, there are a number of objective reasons why psychotropic doping is constantly used in different armies of the world.

3.1. MEDICINE FOR CARE

The medicine against fear in a combat situation is of great importance, because in an extreme situation, for higher goals, you need to forget about fear.

In battle, when a person should be as judicious as possible, fear has two extremes - either stupor or inadequate actions: when a soldier suddenly jumps out of a trench during firing, screams, waves his hands, becoming a target for the enemy. There is a whole series of extremely effective psycho-training to overcome fear. So that such stresses do not arise, psychologists can remove the phobia that has arisen before a combat mission, they teach a person to assess the factors that he fears from a position of reason. And then a person becomes fearless. But not enough to complete a real combat mission.

Therefore, in addition to psychological assistance, military doctors also develop miracle pills - psychostimulants, anxiolytics and actoprotectors. Anxiolytics have nothing to do with drugs - they are means that reduce the feeling of fear. These are not drugs that kill any fear in principle, which the military does not need, because if you make a person completely fearless, it will give birth to a madman. With the help of anxiolytics, instead of fear, reason comes, and a person begins to become aware of real-life events, without experiencing unreasonable fear. Anxiolytics reduce the feeling of fear, dramatically increase brain activity and increase strength. Actoprotectors increase human strength.

3.2. INCREASING STRENGTH AND RESISTANCE

When taking actoprotectors, a person develops internal energy, which provides a surge of strength. Such drugs include, in particular, domestic bromantanum - an actoprotector, which is a powerful psychostimulant. Suppose a person could not raise ninety kilograms in a normal situation, and a tablet gives him strength for this.

In addition, to help the soldier resist the cold, drugs have been created that allow you to survive in cold water at a temperature of plus 2 3 degrees for half an hour. An ordinary person without doping in such conditions will not last even a few minutes. They are tested on volunteers from International Association  winter marathon swimming. Having taken the preparations, the athletes spend thirty minutes in the pools with ice water.

A person who has taken doping (of an act-protective property) is able to withstand four in hand-to-hand combat, walk eighty kilometers without rest, and then get into the target apple from 300 meters.

Moreover, after a wound that is almost incompatible with life, a doped fighter will be able to complete the combat operation, help his comrades and save their lives. Only after that he will die. Cases are described when a soldier who took a dope before a fight with his arm torn off continued to run on the attack, not paying attention to the wound.

4. APPLICATION OF DOPING IN FOREIGN ARMIES

In order for the soldier to withstand all the vicissitudes of the war, he is stuffed with drugs and psychostimulants. Coffee on opium during a Turkish company; hash and heroin in Vietnam.

Due to the low morale of the Yankees, in order to increase the combat readiness of military personnel in the USA, the command of the Armed Forces is pumping up its wards with psychostimulants. According to independent sources Air Force The United States uses narcotic drugs to combat fatigue among pilots making long sorties.

Not far behind the United States and Britain, as well as France, where, as in the United States, the military command has long been actively using psychostimulants in their armies. French Foreign Legion  officially uses psychostimulants since 1991.

Foreign military life pushes the use of doping. Since the start of the war in Iraq, 8,600 soldiers have fled from the British army. The British army decided to transfer the soldiers to psychostimulants. So that the rest do not run away.

4.1. USE OF AMPHETAMINE AND ITS DERIVATIVES

Amphetamine was first synthesized in Germany in 1887 [Dunaevsky V. V., Styazhkin V. D., 1991]. This discovery was then forgotten for a long 40 years. In 1930, the property of amphetamine to increase blood pressure was discovered. Since 1932, amphetamine began to be sold as a medicine called “phenamine” as an appetite suppressant, and shortly afterwards there were reports of abuse of it. In 1935, doctors discovered the stimulating effect of amphetamine and have successfully used it to date in the treatment of certain mental illnesses.

During the Second World War, amphetamine and methamphetamine were widely used in the armies of various countries to improve the performance and endurance of soldiers. They were in first-aid kits of the armies of the USSR, the USA and Germany as a means to relieve fatigue, fight sleep during military service, and increase alertness. Amphetamine was given to American and Soviet pilots, sailors, tankers, and scouts.

Unfortunately, this led to an increase in drug addiction after the war. Despite such a negative effect, in 1950 1953. US Army Command still distributed amphetamine to its soldiers in Korea. Otherwise, they fled the battlefield at the first appearance of the North Koreans.

Amphetamines are still common in medical practice and in the military. They have retained their “military” significance even now - they are not included in the first-aid kit of the entire army, of course, but it is obligatory in the set of special units of the US Army. And there is nothing wrong with that. With a moderate, controlled use of amphetamine preparations, the combat effectiveness of military personnel increases without pronounced side effects ..

Currently, American experts are looking for new ways to maintain soldiers' high combat efficiency for a long time instead of tablet psychostimulants. For example, a technology is being developed to stimulate the cerebral hemispheres through electromagnetic pulses to relieve fatigue and stress. However, pharmacological stimulants, one of which are amphetamines, continue to be the most effective and reliable way to deal with fatigue and stress.

The official use of amphetamines in the US Army was banned in 1992 by the then head of the Air Force, General Merrill MacPick: "... if you think you need pills to meet the danger, you are not doing your thing," said the general. Then the widespread use of pills during the first war in Iraq led to the fact that some pilots "hooked" on them - even to the extent that they were engaged in narcologists.

Despite the official ban on the use of these drugs in the United States, the Pentagon, without further publicity, restored the practice of their use during recent military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. As it became known to one of the television companies, the US Air Force "without too much publicity restored the practice" of the use of amphetamines - strong stimulant drugs that help personnel cope with stress. According to representatives of the US military command, the use of such drugs is necessary to combat the fatigue and stress of military personnel taking part in military operations lasting more than eight nine hours.

Due to the possibility of mental addiction, amphetamines cause acute disputes among US specialists, especially when it comes  about the pilots.

In addition, there is another negative circumstance of the use of psychostimulants. Under extreme physical and mental stress, pilots are so inflated with stimulants that in order to fall asleep at all, they need a strong dose of sedative. According to doctors, it is such an alternate use of stimulants and tranquilizers for a long time that can cause unpredictable reactions.

At the same time, according to the US Air Force command, amphetamines are used by pilots on a voluntary basis. Each of those who wish to receive pills in writing confirms that they are informed about the consequences of taking the drugs. However, the command at the same time Jesuit reserves the right to prevent the pilot from flying if he refuses to take drugs. According to the testimonies received by pilots who have to fly over Iraq and Afghanistan, the pilot can be recognized as “unfit for flight” if he does not take these drugs. Thus, the pilots fall under the powerful, but unofficial pressure of the leadership, forcing them to take doping.

However, even unwritten instructions require that the drug is taken only under the supervision of a doctor and only in the appropriate dosage. However, hardly anyone is able to guarantee full and comprehensive control of the use of such drugs in the armed forces, especially in conditions of hostilities and the developed pharmacological industry of the United States.

Regrettably, the use of amphetamines does not guarantee against errors on the battlefield. Sometimes it aggravates the state of the military due to the individual susceptibility of the human body to psychostimulants, which entails a paradoxical reaction. Therefore, in some conditions and in some people, amphetamines develop lethargy, hallucinations and psychoses.

Attention to the widespread use of doping in the US Air Force was attracted by the incident in Afghanistan in April 2002, when the American pilot Harry Schmidt, taking two tablets of this amphetamine (in the local jargon, simply “speed” or “Go Pills”), accidentally bombed in the Kandahar area a column of Canadian allies, leaving 4 people dead and 8 injured. It turned out that under the influence of amphetamine was not only Major Schmidt, but also his partner Umbakh, that is, both pilots F-16 fought in a state of doping intoxication.

Having decided that “they fire from him artillery guns", Schmidt" took measures of self-defense ", although he was warned that return fire should not be opened. The bombing of the Canadian contingent by the US Air Force pilots during the night exercises plunged everyone into shock. A scandal erupted. Both pilots were given to the tribunal.

During the investigation of the incident, Schmidt's lawyer accused psychostimulants of everything, which the commanders forced the pilot to take. Despite a formal ban on US Air Force pilots, amphetamines - stimulant drugs have long been the norm. Whether you want it or not, you can’t avoid them. “Those who do not take pills are not allowed to fly,” Schmidt explained at a press conference.

One of the most famous drug experts in the United States, Robert Dupont, says amphetamines are harmful. The incident with Schmidt and Umbach confirms his point of view that the widespread use of amphetamines is a game with fire: “People who are addicted to amphetamines are crazy. They are covered by paranoia ... Their judgments do not correspond to reality ... They are the most sick among all drug addicts. "

Advocates of amphetamine use assure that the situation is under control. Supporters of stimulants in the US Armed Forces compare this to careful doping of professional athletes. General Leaf, a former pilot who was assigned by the army to Congress to protect amphetamines, points out that missions involving hours of patrolling are extremely difficult, as at times there is a scattering of attention. According to him, amphetamines can avoid this, and they are used by the military in "small, controlled doses."

Meanwhile, amphetamines, regardless of the dose, are banned by the US authorities as a combat stimulant, and the Drug Enforcement Administration has put them on the same list as cocaine.

The need for the use of psychostimulants in a combat situation and the unsatisfactory characteristics of amphetamines initiated the search and research of new substances with psychostimulating properties.

4.2. DEVELOPMENT OF NEW PSYCHOSTIMULATORS

Currently, the military leadership of the United States and its allies pays considerable attention to improving pharmaceutical stimulants that can be used for military purposes.

According to the British newspaper The Guardian, the British army put soldiers on non-amphetamine-type psychostimulants. But what if the British flee the battlefield for thousands. The Ministry of Defense of Great Britain to procure its troops in Iraq bought a huge amount of psychostimulant medication with a rather controversial reputation. This drug Provigil - modafinil, which is also sold in pharmacies in Russia. It “turns off” a person’s need for sleep. This stimulant does not apply to amphetamines. The creators of the drug claim that it has no serious side effects, but experts doubt it and are also worried about possible abuse.

It should be noted that the exact mechanism of action, as well as possible side effects of the drug provigil, are unknown even to the manufacturer. According to some reports, provigil may cause increased nervousness, agitation, irritability, dizziness and headache. In addition, gastrointestinal upsets (nausea and abdominal pain), increased blood pressure and arrhythmia are possible. Recent clinical studies have shown that when taking it, anxiety, changes in the state of the psyche or mood (confusion, depression, distorted thinking, hallucinations), chest pain, signs of infection (fever, persistent sore throat), inflammation of the mucous membrane are possible nose. Some of these symptoms persist over time or even increase over time.

The British began to use this drug back in 2001 in Afghanistan. In 2003, in the UK, he provigil passed tests and received a license as a drug for the treatment of narcolepsy - a brain disorder, the main sign of which is bouts of uncontrollable sleepiness. Now the UK defense department has purchased more than 24,000 capsules of the drug, which is licensed in the UK for use only in cases of severe neuropsychiatric disorders associated with pathological daytime sleepiness.

Representatives of the US armed forces have already stated that they also want to use this medicine to increase the ability of military personnel to do without sleep and rest for a long time.

Military experts believe that this psychostimulant can also be used “without a license” to maintain pilots of military aircraft and special forces troops in a constant state of wakefulness.

The British plan to use a psychostimulant to provigil to keep “in shape” special forces soldiers who participate in operations lasting more than 48 hours, as well as for pilots during long patrols of airspace.

The military’s interest in provigil is explained by a desire to find an alternative to existing stimulants - caffeine and amphetamine. Caffeine has a fairly low efficiency, and amphetamine is addictive, growing into amphetamine addiction.

British doctors hope that sneak will be the drug that will help solve the problem of prolonged wakefulness of military personnel in extreme and combat conditions.

Despite the dangers posed by the use of synthetic drugs, the US military does not intend to abandon the use of psychostimulants. The super task set by the US Department of Defense before scientists is aimed at achieving the superiority of the American soldier in battle by increasing his physical and mental capabilities, the ability to go without sleep for a long time and almost not feel fear, which is very important for the Yankees, who have repeatedly shown their “fighting” quality.

Despite the fact that amphetamine itself and its immediate derivatives have many drawbacks, scientific research by military doctors abroad continues in the direction of finding amphetamine derivatives that are not addictive to them.

5. DOPING IN THE RUSSIAN ARMY

The development of doping by the Russian military, including the creation of Pervitinum, Sydnocarb, is ongoing.

The psycho-stimulating agent Pervitin was created in the USSR for reconnaissance and sabotage units. This drug has higher activity and toxicity than amphetamine (phenamine). Its effect: great ability to work, lack of desire to sleep, eat, while increasing the body's susceptibility to sounds, smells. Side effects: fever, dehydration and exhaustion, paranoia, depression. People could not sleep for 10 to 15 days, practically did not eat anything, were constantly on the move. Very strongly affects the central nervous system, causing dependence. Due to the high risk of developing addiction, it was excluded from the State Register according to the order of the USSR Minister of Health of December 19, 1974.

Nowadays, they are doping in Russia at the Center for Elite Medicine, which improves the professional skills of the military, athletes, and polar explorers. He is led by a military physician E.G. Zhilyaev - professor, lieutenant general of the medical service. Prior to that, for several years he was the head of the state research institute of extreme medicine, field pharmacy and medical equipment of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation.

We at the Research Institute of Extreme Medicine of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation under the direction of E. G. Zhilyaev [Kozlovsky Yu. I. et al., 1994], as part of studies conducted by a group of colonel of the medical service Yu. I. Kozlovsky, established the influence of sydnocarb and other psychostimulating substances on free radical processes in the human body [Kozlovsky Yu. I. et al., 1998], the importance of which in the effective activity of the brain has been repeatedly shown [Sherstnev M. P., 2001; Sherstnev M., 1990]. In the Russian army, the domestic psycho-stimulator Sydnocarb is used mainly, whose action, unlike phenamine, is not accompanied by euphoria and motor excitement [Kozlovsky Yu. I., Sherstnev MP, 1995]. In the process of research, the leading significance of the lipid microenvironment on the functioning of receptors transmitting psychostimulating signals was established. This opened up the opportunity, immediately realized in the West, to create psychostimulant substances that are not part of the amphetamine group.

Based on our studies in the field of psychotropic drugs, including doping drugs [Kozlovsky, Yu. I. et al., 1994; Sherstnev M.P., 2001; Sherstnev M., 1990], an effective method for the treatment of drug addiction has been developed.

CONCLUSION

Thus, the use of psychostimulants in the leading armies of the world, which began during the Second World War, continues to this day. They find special application in the Air Force and special forces because of the complexity and difficulties that the military personnel of these units encounter during the conduct of hostilities. The main psychostimulant in service with the US Army and its allies until recently was amphetamine. However, given its many side effects and addiction to it, since the 2000s. abroad began the introduction of non-amphetamine-type psychostimulants, in particular, provigil.

Three articles, a lot of bugs

Article times.

Today, military scientists are capable of supplying to our army warriors who do not know fear and pain.

PSYCHOSTIMULATOR PHENAMINE (AMPHETAMINE)

Phenamine first found military use, and then entered the world psychotherapeutic practice. During World War II, it was given to American and Soviet pilots, sailors, tankers, and reconnaissance vehicles as a means to relieve fatigue, fight sleep while on duty, and increase alertness. Phenamine is still common in psychotherapeutic practice and has retained its military significance. It is included in the first-aid kits of special units of the US Army.
Seriously hurt the pride of our military X-Files. All these soldiers, who are immune to biological weapons, completely rid of the aging factor and able to grow torn limbs again, withstand bullet wounds and continue to move on the enemy even with a hole in the head ... What we learned from visiting the offices of a military institute allows to say that reality is getting closer and closer to the futuristic dreams of the Smoker ... Fantastic paperback and films about cyborgs can be safely thrown into the trash bin. Which we did. After a small investigation, it turned out that the mysterious psychophysical correction, ensuring the fulfillment of almost any super-task, Russian Rambo can take place in only a few places. Including at the Center for Extreme Medicine in Sokolniki. Stroybatovtsy, musicians and rear teams do not get here. To pass special procedures at the Center is the prerogative of the best of the best, chosen, so to speak, as the homeland for special purposes.

We are on the territory of the Center. Modernist buildings, corridors, endless doors with chrome plates. Entrance with voice recorders and cell phones is prohibited. Since the recorder was seized from us at the checkpoint, we boldly open the door ... Pavel Shalimov, professors and doctors of sciences (earlier, in 1996, doctor of medical sciences, professor P.M. Shalimov, worked at the State Research Institute of Computer Science and Technology) confuse hidden recorders or legends about American universal soldiers impossible. He deals with the first, without getting up, in the office there is a small case with a device that suppresses the recording of a working voice recorder. With the second, his wards can safely compete. Only healthy people come to our Center. As a rule, soldiers and officers from the Second World War, the Marine Corps, SOBR. They passed the initial selection on the ground, have a high intellectual and physical potential. This is our difference from similar institutions: we are engaged in the health of not sick, but healthy people. But completely healthy guys as a result of testing may be potentially unsuitable for a particular task. In some certain harsh conditions for a future business trip, one may have a psyche, another heart. We select or adjust.

MILITARY FIELD NOVEL WITH PHENOMIN

Almost all drugs used in the Center, his doctors check first on themselves. As a rule, we are talking about substances that affect the physical abilities of a person, but most importantly, consciousness. We managed to find out that recently the tests of a unique psychostimulant were completed at the Center. Here is what was stated verbatim: This is a drug that dramatically increases the brain activity of a soldier. It looks like the famous hair dryer, that is, the phenamine used by American pilots at the end of World War II ... It is true that phenamine is an ideal psychostimulant, but it has a couple of disadvantages: it is addictive and a strong heartbeat. And our tablets correspond to the effect of phenamine, but are not addictive. We prescribe this drug in small doses to certain categories of elite fighters. This is the so-called recipe for fear ... According to the Center, the new phenamine (by the way, the name was not declassified to us) at the same time calms and causes a surge of vigor and a sense of confidence. A soldier who has undergone a course of psychostimulation is able to withstand one to four opponents in hand-to-hand combat. He can go eighty kilometers without rest and after that, put ten bullets in a row from three hundred meters into the target apple.
In addition to the upgraded hair dryer, the Center is currently undergoing tests and very mysterious drugs. Now we are testing radioprotectors that allow a person to survive even after monstrous doses of radiation. Survive, of course, for some short time, sufficient to carry out a military operation. This drug is an order of magnitude superior to the analogue that was given to the Chernobyl liquidators. Not without trepidation did we learn about a certain substance that could prolong the life of a soldier after a wound that was incompatible with life. In principle, a person who, according to all the canons, is already a corpse, is able to think and bring to the end a combat operation, help his comrades and save his life. Only after that he will die ... Well, here we are, and you say that you do not create zombies ... You do not put the accents that way, says the head of the department Pavel Shalimov. We are striving to reduce the number of victims by all means. If it weren’t for the zombies, as you say, much more of our guys would have died in Chechnya ... During a tour of the Center, we were told between cases that the famous peacekeeping unit, which had entered Kosovo before the NATO, underwent partial training in these walls. The Center’s employees also consider their creation a new generation of cryoprojectors. In one of the deep and comfortable-looking pools of the training complex, the water temperature never rises above one or two degrees. Volunteers swim in it for many hours, allowing scientists to find out all aspects of the new drug. And no one has frozen yet? we asked. Our cryoprojector does not allow this, people in white coats proudly answered.

EVERY THIRD OF PSYCHES AND SUGGESTORS

According to our interlocutors, up to thirty percent of the military have no right to hold weapons in their hands. How many pathetic and touching words were said that in Bosnia and Herzegovina Russian army directs elite, past fire, water and copper pipes. This is not true. As a result of an in-depth examination, we identified among them from 15 to 17 percent of people who use drugs, with neuropsychiatric abnormalities, with suicidal tendencies and just alcoholics. The Center for Emergency Medicine also examined the General Staff security brigade. Here the percentage of psychos and drug addicts reaches 30. Every third is abnormal. To the surprise of the staff of the Center for Extreme Medicine, no one in the General Staff even led an ear. The situation is better with the military going to Chechnya for special operations ... And after our friends went to Dagestan and from there to Chechnya late at night from a military airfield near Moscow, we had no doubt about the outcome of the military operation.

Article two

The cure for fear

To increase the combat effectiveness of the US military pumped with psychostimulants

The psychological state of soldiers in the combat zone has been the subject of much research. According to US Army psychiatrists of World War II, far from the front line, soldiers were enthusiastic about displaying miracles of heroism. However, this lasted exactly until the moment when they did not start shooting. In the first battles, about a quarter of the soldiers vomited with fear. Many could not control their intestines, about 10% peed in their pants, and some ran away directly under fire. Only about 2% of those who came under fire could adequately respond to the situation, but they were more or less affected by combat stress. An approximate supply of mental stability for the soldiers of World War II could be about 60 days of hostilities.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTOR

Military conflicts recent years, in which the US Armed Forces took an active part, showed that, despite the almost absolute technical superiority of the US Armed Forces in modern military operations, an order of magnitude smaller than in the wars of the past, casualties and radically changed principles of warfare, the situation with the psychological state of a person in battle has not changed significantly. So, during the analysis of the unsuccessful campaign of US special operations forces in Somalia, survivors were asked how they feel about returning to combat positions. Less than 1% answered in the affirmative, and among the holders of the Silver Star (a reward for courage) there were no positive answers at all.

In addition, today the increased intensity of military operations has a significant impact on the psychological state of military personnel. Modern weapons and equipment make it possible to conduct combat operations at any time of the day, regardless of weather conditions. Stress resulting from fighting and lack of rest affect military personnel so much that, according to American military psychologists, after a week of military operations they act worse than if they were drunk or were under the influence of sedatives.

Greatest load during recent operations  The United States carried units of the Navy, Air Force and Special Operations Forces. According to some reports, during the fighting, crew members of strike aircraft carriers had to sleep only a few hours in three days. At the same time, beginners noted a slowdown in reaction, a decrease in vigilance and a decrease in the ability to remember important details. Dramatically increased the average number of errors in decision making.

A significant decline was found even among experienced army rangers, especially when performing long missions. The "working day" of a US Air Force pilot in the course of recent operations could often last up to 24 hours. During the day, pilots made up to three sorties. This also included receiving instructions, technical control of the aircraft, direct combat flight and a flight report.

It was noted that as a result of significant combat loads, a person’s reaction speed, ability to recognize targets are significantly reduced, and difficulties arise in choosing the best solution. One of the most serious consequences of the resulting fatigue is a sharp decrease in the ability to make decisions in a split second on whether the probable target is an enemy soldier, a civilian, or one of his own. As a result, the number of incidents in which civilians or soldiers of friendly forces were mistakenly killed has increased significantly in recent conflicts. Most scandal  The bombing in April 2002 by US Air Force pilots of the Canadian contingent during an overnight exercise in Afghanistan resulted in the death of four Canadian troops and eight more injured.

DRUGS OLD

Currently, American experts are looking for ways to maintain high combat effectiveness among soldiers for a longer time. For example, work is underway to create computer programs that will monitor the sleep patterns of fighters. In addition, a technology is being developed to stimulate the cerebral hemispheres through electromagnetic pulses to relieve fatigue and stress. However, pharmacological stimulants, one of which are amphetamines, remain the most effective way to deal with fatigue and stress.

Despite the ban on the use of these drugs in the United States, the Pentagon, without further publicity, restored the practice of their use in recent military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. According to representatives of the US military command, the use of such drugs is necessary to combat the fatigue and stress of military personnel taking part in military operations lasting more than eight to nine hours.

Amphetamines are the closest synthetic analogues of the well-known psychostimulant cocaine. They can cause an unusual emotional upsurge, a desire for vigorous activity, eliminate a feeling of fatigue, create a feeling of tirelessness, vivacity, unusual clarity of mind and ease of movement, quick wits, confidence in one’s abilities and abilities, a feeling of fearlessness. Amphetamines are accompanied by high spirits. Amphetamines differ from cocaine in less euphoria and a stronger stimulating effect.

Even during the Second World War, amphetamines were used in the armies of the USSR, the USA and Germany as a means to relieve fatigue, fight sleep during military service, and increase alertness. These drugs are still common in medical practice and in the armed forces. For example, they are included in the kit of the first-aid kit of special forces of the US Army. Amphetamines are classified as drugs by the World Health Organization.

After taking these drugs no more than an hour later, an active state occurs. The mood improves, mental and physical activity rises, a surge of energy is felt, a feeling of self-confidence, one's strengths and capabilities appears. In humans, the need for rest and sleep practically disappears. At high doses (100-150 mg), strong mental arousal sets in, and active wakefulness can last up to three days. However, in about 10% of people, amphetamines can cause a backlash in the form of drowsiness, lethargy, and decreased performance.

Amphetamines sharply suppress appetite, cause constriction of blood vessels and increase pressure. With its use, dry mouth, dilated pupils, rapid pulse are observed. Breathing deepens and ventilation increases. A marked increase in pressure is caused by doses of more than 20 mg. In very small doses, amphetamines are used to treat sexual disorders, as the result of their action can be an increase in sexual desire and sexual potency.

Amphetamines more often end their action suddenly. Emotional and physical recovery after about 6-8 hours is sharply replaced by exhaustion, a feeling of fatigue, irritability. With occasional use, amphetamines are not physiologically addictive. But in cases of regular use, facts of mental addiction to drugs were established. In addition, with prolonged use, amphetamines can cause a depressive state, as well as side effects such as paranoia and hallucinations, aggression, craving for violence, nervousness and exhaustion of the nervous system.

In this regard, the use of amphetamines causes controversy among US specialists, especially when it comes to pilots. Under extreme physical and mental stress, pilots are so inflated with stimulants that in order to fall asleep at all, they need a strong dose of sedative. According to doctors, it is such an alternate use of stimulants and tranquilizers for a long time that can cause unpredictable reactions.

At the same time, according to the US Air Force command, amphetamines are used by pilots on a voluntary basis. Each of those who wish to receive pills in writing confirms that they are informed about the consequences of taking the drugs. At the same time, the command reserves the right to prevent the pilot from flying if he refuses to take drugs. Drug use is carried out only under the supervision of a physician and only in the appropriate dosage. Some supporters of stimulants in the US Armed Forces compare this with careful doping of professional athletes. However, hardly anyone is able to guarantee full and comprehensive control of the use of such drugs in the armed forces, especially in conditions of hostilities and the developed pharmacological industry of the United States.

NEW DEVELOPMENTS

Currently, the military leadership of the United States and its allies pays considerable attention to improving pharmaceutical stimulants that can be used for military purposes. So, in 2003, the United Kingdom created the drug modafinil, which “turns off” a person’s need for sleep. Modafinil was tested and obtained a license as a drug for the treatment of narcolepsy, a brain disorder whose main symptom is bouts of uncontrollable drowsiness. The creators of the drug say that it has no side effects, but experts are concerned about possible abuse. Representatives of the US Armed Forces have already stated that they want to use this medicine to increase the ability of military personnel to do without sleep and rest for a long time. According to the creators of the drug, this stimulant does not apply to amphetamines.

Despite the dangers posed by the use of synthetic drugs, the US military does not intend to abandon the use of psychostimulants. The super task set by the US Department of Defense before scientists is aimed at achieving the superiority of the American soldier in battle by increasing his physical and mental capabilities, the ability to go without sleep for a long time and almost no fear.

Article Three

Any state calls or hires people in the army who should be on guard of its interests round the clock seven days a week. But man is an imperfect creature, and the physiological laws of the functioning of his body provide such a pleasant process for us, but such an unpleasant one for the army and the state, as a dream.

Immersion in the kingdom of Morpheus (the "Matrix" has nothing to do with it, this is the name of the ancient Greek god of dreams) allows a person to rest and recover. However, losing valuable time is simply not part of army plans. Warlords of all times and peoples dreamed of soldiers who did not know fatigue, pain and fear. That is why military medicine had to come to grips with this issue.

The first quite alarming signal came at the end of the 19th century from Germany. The soldiers and officers who returned from the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871, almost through one turned out to be morphists. To ease their “hardships and deprivations of military service”, many injected themselves with morphine, a rather fashionable drug at that time for practically all diseases.

They moved the war relatively well, but, returning to a peaceful life, they could not give up addiction. From the point of view of modern medical knowledge about morphine and its derivatives, it is understandable why.

Wonderful Nuts and Magic Powder

The French army also experimented with its soldiers. Watching the native wars in Africa, the French marveled at the stamina of the warriors of local tribes. The main part of their diet was fresh nuts of the Cola acuminata plant - pointed cola. The Africans said that these wonderful fruits and hunger are quenched, and they add strength, and you don’t feel like sleeping after them, and even protect many from diseases.

However, these stories were considered fairy tales for a very long time, until one of the French officers put the experience on himself. He crushed the cola nuts into powder and ran through the African mountains for 12 hours without feeling tired. The report of the invigorated lieutenant colonel was noticed, and scientists, whose work was immediately classified by the military, were closely engaged in a mysterious nut.

After a thorough analysis of the chemical composition of cola fruits, it turned out that they contain 2.5 percent caffeine and a unique complex of vitamins, trace elements and nutrients. They made an extract of nuts and prepared “crackers with an accelerator”, which in 1885 fed a battalion of soldiers during field clinical trials. On the “energy” (as they were called now) breadcrumbs and water, the military march 55 kilometers without respite in 10 hours in the African heat.

It is noteworthy that the next day, after a night's rest, the battalion also cheerfully returned to the fort. Then the experiment was repeated on a larger military unit - a whole regiment set off on a march on the “accelerating” rally. The result was the same. It would seem that everything is just wonderful, but a number of side effects forced to abandon the use of "wonderful crackers" in its purest form. One of them was especially inconvenient in combat conditions - the extract of cola nuts acted as a powerful sexual stimulant.

I had to breed “magic powder” with food, reducing side effects and, at the same time, weakening the main effect. The most successful was mixing the extract with chocolate. So successful that chocolate is still registered in the food ration of almost all the armies of the world.

Vodka with cocaine - this is our way

By the beginning of the 20th century, alcohol (vodka, schnapps and other strong alcoholic drinks) became the main stimulant and, in combination, a stress protector. He not only raised his morale and allowed him to look at death differently, but also helped to overcome pain shock during a wound.

During World War I, an “trench cocktail” was created in Russia, after which the Pacific Ocean could appear as a puddle in the gateway. The composition of the drug included cocaine and alcohol. During the Civil War, both opposing sides used this infernal mixture. The “sticky” fighters did not know fear, fatigue or pain. But then a painless return to a peaceful life was not possible for everyone later.

During World War II, alcohol was also an important part of maintaining the combat readiness of soldiers and officers; it’s enough to recall the “people's commissar” one hundred grams. Often, he also acted as a general anesthetic during surgical interventions in field hospitals.

But scientific thought did not stand still, advances in chemistry and medicine made it possible to make a sufficiently large breakthrough in the creation of "universal" soldiers. Even then, stimulants based on pervitin, ephedrine and amphetamine were tested in the armies of the warring states. In our time, similar developments are also underway, but for the general public they remain classified information.

Pill to me, pill

Modern researchers solve the same problem as their predecessors - create a "sleepless", tireless fighter. The head of the Pentagon research agency determined the motivation for such research very simply: "Eliminating the need for sleep during active hostilities will fundamentally change the strategy and tactics of warfare."

One of the programs being developed in the USA is CAP (Continuous Assisted Performance Program). Its leader, John Carney, defines the goal of research as “seven days and seven nights without sleep.” In this case, the similar abilities of birds and animals are taken. It is widely known, for example, that dolphins are constantly awake (otherwise they simply will not be able to breathe in aquatic environment) Bald sparrows also do not sleep for a long period, in a word, there is a chance to find a solution to the problem with mother nature.

Other programs are looking for an answer in chemistry. Fortunately, its modern possibilities are truly endless. Thus, the UK Department of Defense has purchased a huge amount of psychostimulant with a controversial reputation enough to support its troops in Iraq. The Defense Department purchased more than 24,000 capsules of Provigil, which is licensed in the UK and the USA for use only in cases of severe neuropsychiatric disorders associated with pathological daytime sleepiness.

Experts believe that this psychostimulant can also be used “out of license” to maintain pilots of military aircraft and special forces troops in a constant state of wakefulness. The British began to use this drug in Afghanistan in 2001, and France and the United States have long been actively using psychostimulants in their armies. The French Foreign Legion has been using such drugs since 1991, and their widespread use in the US Army has been temporarily suspended after the April 2002 incident.

Then in Kandahar, two F-16 pilots mistakenly bombed a Canadian military convoy, resulting in 4 deaths and 8 injuries. A subsequent investigation found that both pilots were under the influence of the amphetamine psychostimulator, which they received before completing the assignment. The British plan to use a psychostimulant to maintain “in shape” special forces soldiers who participate in operations lasting more than 48 hours, as well as for pilots during long-term patrols of airspace.

It should be noted that the exact mechanism of action, as well as the possible side effects of Provigil, are unknown even to the manufacturer. According to some reports, Provigil can cause increased nervousness, agitation, irritability, dizziness, and headache. In addition, gastrointestinal upsets (nausea and abdominal pain), increased blood pressure and blood pressure are possible.

The military’s interest in Provigil is explained by a desire to find an alternative to existing stimulants - caffeine and amphetamine. Caffeine has a fairly low efficiency, and amphetamine is addictive, growing into amphetamine addiction.

And I want, and pricks

So, any violence against the body is dangerous. Because he, this organism, is known for its vindictiveness and revenge. And he will definitely remind you that it was then and then that he was mercilessly deprived of sleep. Moreover, it will be recalled at its discretion and the “choice of weapons” will always remain with it. But most often the psyche suffers. Thus, according to the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, every fifth American soldier returning from Iraq suffers from mental disorders associated with post-traumatic syndrome.

And after that, they are included in a special government program, which previously only involved victims of sexual violence. There they are prescribed ecstasy to get rid of unpleasant memories and nightmares. The Israeli army intends to use the psychoactive component of marijuana - delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) for the same purpose.

The psychological rehabilitation of the veterans of the Afghan war faced no less difficulties in the USSR; only this problem was modestly silent. Psychological assistance was provided to the soldiers and officers involved in operations in Chechnya - to the extent possible, of course. Both military psychologists and psychiatrists were involved.

And in February 2005, in the city of Novocherkassk, Rostov Region, a rehabilitation center was created for the special forces of the North Caucasus District of Internal Troops (SKO VV) involved in counter-terrorism operations in the North Caucasus. A course of treatment and rehabilitation at the center will be able to take up to 20 people at a time.

So the army first tries to make sure that the soldiers do not sleep, and then - so that they fall asleep. And if the first still succeeds, then the second for some people turns into a huge problem. Especially if it is not a professional military soldier, but an inexperienced recruit. The next race between the possibilities of scientific and technological progress and the adaptive resources of the human body is won by progress. And we lose - both in the literal and figurative sense - we are with you.

Fascist Germany can rightfully be called the country of drug addicts. The use of various narcotic drugs was actually proclaimed by state policy. The Luftwaffe and the Wehrmacht were sitting on drugs of narcotic action. Indulged in various drugs and the Reich leadership. This is all the more surprising because formally the Nazi regime paid much attention to the health of the nation, and the first and quite effective anti-tobacco campaign at the initial stage was launched precisely in pre-war Germany.

During the Second World War, German soldiers were often stuffed with narcotic drugs, which gave them additional strength and endurance. In fact, the real secret in Hitler’s hands was not the FAU missiles or mythical designs of flying saucers, but the drug Pervitin. A study of the activities of German doctors and medicine of the Third Reich during the Second World War, which was conducted by the Association of German Doctors, found that in some cases, German soldiers and officers were given special pills before the battle, which significantly increased their endurance and allowed them to fight for a long time without rest and sleep It is known that more than 200 million tablets of Pervitin were delivered to the German armed forces from 1939 to 1945. Most of these tablets received the advanced parts of the Wehrmacht, occupying Poland, Holland, Belgium and France.

Methamphetamine, or pervitin, is an artificial derivative of amphetamine, a crystalline substance of white color, bitter in taste and odorless. This substance is a strong psychostimulant with a very high addiction potential. In this regard, it has become widespread as a drug. Today, Pervitin can be found a large number of  “Street” names: speed, speed, ice, hair dryer, chalk, meth, screw, etc. And if today the view on methamphetamine is quite unambiguous, then a few decades ago it was not.

Methamphetamine hydrochloride crystals (“ice”)

For the first time, amphetamine, which was the precursor of the described drug, was synthesized in Germany in 1887, and methamphetamine itself, which was easier to use but also much more powerful, was synthesized in 1919 by a scientist from Japan A. Ogata. In the 1930s, Temmler Werke's pharmacists in Berlin used it as a stimulant called Pervitin. Since 1938, this substance was systematically and in large doses used in the army and defense industry (on the eve of World War II, Pervitin tablets were officially included in the “fighting ration” of tankers and pilots).

Pervitin Pills and Tank Chocolate (Panzerschokolade)

In 1938, Otto Ranke, director of the Institute of General and Military Physiology of the Berlin Academy of Military Medicine, turned his attention to a product manufactured by the Temmler Berlin company. Pervitin was a drug from the amphetamine class, it had the same effect as adrenaline produced by the human body. At its core, amphetamines were doping, accelerating sleep, increasing the ability to concentrate, a sense of self-confidence and a willingness to take risks. At the same time, a person taking Pervitin was dulled by a feeling of hunger and thirst, and sensitivity to pain decreased.

The Germans regarded Pervitin as a means that should be given to soldiers in rare cases when they have to perform a particularly difficult task. The manual for naval doctors emphasized: “Medical staff must understand that Pervitin is a very powerful stimulant. This tool is able to help any soldier achieve much more than he usually could have done. "

The stimulating effect of this substance was vigor and increased activity, high spirits, decreased fatigue, decreased appetite, decreased need for sleep, increased ability to concentrate. At present, amphetamines (in countries where their use is permitted by law) for therapeutic purposes can be prescribed for narcolepsy (insurmountable pathological drowsiness) and ADHD - attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

In the German army, Pervitin was used to combat fatigue during long marches (flights), to concentrate. There is information that Adolf Hitler took Pervitinum in the form of intravenous injections since 1942 (according to other sources even earlier - since 1936) from his personal physician Theodor Morel. Moreover, after 1943, injections began to be done several times a day. In parallel, Hitler received injections of yukodal. Taking substances with such regularity and in such a combination, a person very quickly “sits down” on them. It is safe to say that by the time of his death in 1945, Hitler could already be called an addict with experience. Moreover, drug addiction was a criminal offense in Germany at that time.

It is worth noting that the disease pretty much hit the top of the Reich. So, one of Hitler’s main associates, Reich Marshall German Goering, was a morphist. The Americans who took him prisoner found in his property 20 thousand ampoules with morphine. As one of the main Nazi criminals, he was brought to trial at the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg, while he was subjected to compulsory medical treatment in Goering prison.

Initially, Pervitin was distributed to military drivers who were less tired and more alert. After that, the drug was very widespread in the troops, which were directly involved in the hostilities. Between April and July 1940 alone, 35 million tablets of Pervitinum and Isofan (a modification of the drug produced by Knoll) were transferred to the troops. The drug at that time was distributed uncontrollably, it was only necessary to ask. Each tablet of Pervitin contained 3 mg of active substance. On the packages with the drug was indicated "stimulant." The instruction recommended taking 1-2 tablets in order to overcome sleep. The belief in the safety of this psychostimulant was so great that special sweets with Pervitin filling even appeared on sale. They received the name "panzerschokolade" - tank chocolate.

In May 1940, a 23-year-old soldier named Heinrich Belle wrote to his family with a front line. He complained a lot about fatigue and asked his family to send him Pervitin. Henry was a big fan of this tool. Only one tablet, he said, could replace liters of the strongest coffee. After taking the drug, even for a few hours, all anxieties disappeared, the person became happy. After a third of a century in 1972, this former Wehrmacht soldier will receive Nobel Prize  on literature.

However, over time, doctors began to notice that after taking Pervitinum it is necessary to recover for a long time, and the effect of taking the pills decreases if you take them often. At the same time, more serious side effects were revealed. Several people even died from an overdose. At the request of his subordinates, the SS SSFenführer Leonardo Conti, the imperial director of health, even tried to limit the use of Pervitin. July 1, 1941, this stimulant was included in the list of drugs that needed to be issued only with special permission. However, in the Wehrmacht, this prescription was essentially ignored, believing that enemy bullets, shells and mines were much more dangerous than pills, which in some cases help to fight.

Gradually, doctors and scientists revealed more and more side effects when taking psychostimulants. It was noted that with an overdose, which was quite possible in a combat situation, all the positive effects of the drug were manifested in an excessive form. Increased activity under the influence of amphetamine with an increase in the dose of the drug became aimless: for example, performing a large amount of stereotypic work without much need for this, but with exaggerated thoroughness, a long search for any items. Communicativeness turned into talkativeness, pathological thoroughness of speech. And the abuse of amphetamine in combination with the accumulating lack of sleep could lead to the development of schizophrenia-like psychosis. At the end of the action of the drug, the described behavioral reactions almost always followed by a decrease in the emotional background, sometimes reaching visual illusions, depression, which manifest individually for each individual person. Also, the effect of accumulation of fatigue was characteristic of psychostimulants - when the person stopped taking them, the person who was depressed by the drug showed a need for sleep and food.

This was explained by the fact that all stimulants activated the "reserves" of the human body and after the cessation of the effect of their intake, time is needed for their recovery. At the same time, with repeated receptions, mental dependence arose quite quickly. With regular use of amphetamine, its stimulating effect disappears and a person needs a large dose to achieve pleasant sensations. With prolonged use of psychostimulants, personality psychopathization occurred. As a result, the person became less sensitive to the suffering of other people, more callous, his mood quickly fell, up to the desire to commit suicide. All these identified side effects caused Pervitin to be included in a special list of drugs in July 1941, the distribution of which should be strictly controlled.

It is worth noting that during the Second World War, the Allies did not lag behind the Germans. So, the American soldiers in daily rations along with canned goods and other food, cigarettes and chewing gum also had a package with 10 tablets of amphetamine. These pills were definitely used by the American paratroopers on Day D, which was understandable, because they had to solve various combat missions in the rear of the German troops over the course of a day, and sometimes more, in isolation from parts of the first echelon of the sea landing. British troops used 72 million amphetamine tablets during World War II. Quite actively, these stimulants were used by the Royal Air Force pilots.

D-IX Tablets

Today it is no secret to anyone that the Nazi regime conducted various medical experiments on prisoners of concentration camps. For the Germans, prisoners were a cheap expendable material for experiments. The prisoners were also experimented with the distribution of drugs, although information about this even after 70 years after the victory still has to be collected bit by bit. More often than other concentration camps where such experiments could be performed, the Sachsenhausen death camp is mentioned. In this regard, they recall the "Experiment D-IX" - the code name for a new narcotic substance, the tests of which began in late 1944. Just at that time, the prisoner of the Sachsenhausen camp was Odd Nansen, the son of the world famous polar explorer and Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen. In his diary, he left the following entry: “At the very beginning, fines, who tested the new drug, rejoiced and even sang songs, but after 24 hours of continuous walking, most of them simply fell to the ground from impotence.”

According to Odd Nanson, 18 concentration camp inmates had to walk a total of about 90 kilometers without stopping, carrying 20 kg of cargo behind their backs. In the camp of these prisoners, who became “experimental rabbits” for the Third Reich, they called them “drug patrols”. All the prisoners, according to Nansen, knew or suspected that the Nazis were conducting tests of "a means to preserve the energy of the human body." After the war, Nansen told his life observations to the German historian Wolf Kempler, who later, based on these memoirs, as well as a number of other documents, “will make a name for himself” by publishing his book “The Nazis and Speed \u200b\u200b- Drugs in the Third Reich”. In his book, Wolf Kemper wrote that the Nazi idea was to turn ordinary soldiers, pilots and sailors into the likeness of robots that would have superhuman abilities. Wolf Kemper claimed that the order to create a potent drug came from the rate of the Fuhrer in 1944.

According to some reports, it was in 1944 that the German vice-admiral Helmut Heye held a special meeting with the leadership of the medical service and leading specialists in the field of pharmacology, who at that time remained in Germany. The Vice Admiral believed that it was time to develop an ultramodern medication that would allow soldiers and sailors of the Reich to better tolerate the effects of various negative stressful situations for a long time, and also gave them the opportunity to act more calmly and confidently in any even the most difficult situations. Many leaders of German special forces wanted to supply such “miracle tablets” to their subordinates, therefore they supported the idea of \u200b\u200bHelmut Heye.

Haye was able to obtain permission to form a special medical research group in the city of Kiel, led by professor of pharmacology Gerhard Orchehovsky. The task of this group was to carry out the entire cycle of work on the development, testing and launching into serial production of the drug with the above characteristics. The miracle pill was tested in 1944 in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp, it received the designation D-IX. The composition of the tablet was 5 mg of cocaine, 3 mg of pervitin and 5 mg of oxycodone (a painkiller, refers to semisynthetic opioids). Nowadays, anyone caught with such pills could be jailed as a drug dealer. But in Nazi Germany, it was planned to distribute the drug to submariners.

After the end of World War II, many German pharmacists were taken out or left for the USA, where they continued work on the creation of stimulants. In the years 1966-1969 alone, the U.S. Army received 225 million tablets of dextroamphetamine and pervitin. These drugs were used in the Korean and Vietnamese wars. According to official figures, the use of Pervitine by American soldiers stopped only in 1973.

Sources of information:
http://expert.ru/2013/06/6/narkomanyi-tretego-rejha
http://med-info.ru/content/view/1381
http://tvzvezda.ru/news/forces/content/201503211617-lr2u.htm
http://www.novayagazeta.ru/comments/67918.html?p\u003d3
http://ru-history.livejournal.com/3417795.html

according to military psychiatrists, in the first battles, a quarter of the soldiers vomit in fear. still as much unable to control their intestines, or urinate in their pants. statistics collected by experts during the Second World War showed that only about 2% of those who came under fire are able to adequately respond to the situation.

the soldier’s mental stability was no more than 60 days of hostilities. yes, war is hard work, not only physical, but also mental. in it, the strength of any superman has a limit. a jerk stretched in time, requiring superhuman efforts, kills anyone. a drug is required to survive.

afghan amphitaminosis

in the spring of 2002, an American f-16 pilot dropped several five-hundred-kilogram bombs at a Canadian military position just south of Kandahar. from the positions of the allies there was no stone unturned. four Canadians who were part of the international peacekeeping corps died, eight were injured.

during interrogations, the bomber pilot Harry Schmidt stubbornly did not admit his guilt and taldychil, as if wound up, that he dropped bombs on his own, because he clearly saw that a heavy fire was being fired at him and they wanted to shoot him down. investigators suggested that the guy is not all right with his head. however, the examination showed that mentally Schmidt is absolutely healthy.

then Schmidt’s lawyer got down to business. talking face-to-face with his client’s colleagues, he unearthed that the American command would give out horse-drawn doses of amphitamine, called “speed” soldiers, to the pilots before each sortie. smelled of a grand scandal.

according to classification world organization  Health Amphitamins are drugs and they are banned for use in the United States. Having given the go-ahead for the use of narcotic stimulants during military operations in Afghanistan (and later in Iraq), the Pentagon was at odds with its own legislation.

in order to save Schmidt from the tribunal, his lawyer hastened to trumpet the whole world about the dangerous experiments that their military commanders put on the American military. The command of the American air force at first left this without comment. but the lawyer did not calm down. and then the leadership officially recognized: yes, the pilots really take amphitamins. but - on a voluntary basis, very dosed and under the strict supervision of doctors.

in support of the public, even a sample document was signed, which every pilot signed before he got addicted to amphitamine: they say that I went about it of my own free will, I was informed about the consequences of taking the drug. but especially cunning journalists immediately noticed that the following paper said: in case of refusal to accept the stimulator, the command has the right to prevent the pilot from flying. that is, if you want to fly, sit on a needle or pills. if you don’t want to - look for a job in civilian life.

pumping pilots with stimulants, the pentagon was right in its own way. there was simply no other way out. the working day of a military pilot during operations often lasted up to 24 hours, while pilots made three to four sorties. many in a few days managed to cook for five to six hours.

without the help of chemistry, the soldiers were simply not able to withstand such a marathon and remain in combat uniform. military doctors noted that under such loads, the military personnel’s reaction slows down sharply, their ability to remember important details, recognize goals, and most importantly, to quickly make optimal decisions decreases.

with amphitamine, the need for rest and sleep practically disappeared among the soldiers, they were full of energy and showed themselves perfectly in a combat situation. therefore, the command turned a blind eye to the fact that the rank and file are gradually becoming drug addicts. victory justifies the means.

however, the soldiers were so pumped up with stimulants during the day that they often could not fall asleep. in order to remove the effect of the “invigorating agent”, the doctors injected a strong dose of sedative relaxants to the soldiers, which the soldiers christened “no speed”.

ultimately, it was the side effects caused by the prolonged use of amphitamine that left the coalition forces sideways. reports increasingly began to appear in the press that for unknown reasons, American soldiers in again  opened a "friendly fire" on their own. Do they have a roof? - the uninitiated were perplexed. so it was. unpredictable reactions were the cause of regular overdose. soldiers sitting on combat stimulants for months became prone to psychopathy, panic, depression, paranoia, aggression and began to see hallucinations.

startlingly, the large-scale scandal surrounding the “Schmidt case” did not force the Pentagon to abandon the practice of pumping army amphitamins. the military has its own ideas about morality. who can blame them? only one who did not participate in this. and here we all have to shut our mouths. the practice of using narcotic drugs for military purposes - for many centuries. and it was tested by almost all the armies of the world.

for motherland for Stalin! and repeat ...

even the Russian military psychologist RK Dreiling wrote that "the labor produced by the infantryman in full armament and equipment exceeds the heaviest forms of hard labor in the amount of energy spent." however, even exorbitant physical exertion could not be compared with the moral exertion of the soldier's work.

according to military psychiatrists gathered in World War II, in the first battles, about a quarter of the soldiers vomited with fear. many could not control their intestines, about 10% peed in their pants, and some ran away directly under fire. only about 2% of those who came under fire could adequately respond to the situation, but they, to one degree or another, were struck by combat stress. the soldier’s mental stability was a maximum of 60 days of combat. just…

therefore, officers from all armies of the world faced the task of overcoming psychological problems. required by any means to reduce the amount of loss combat personnel. and here the army was firmly rescued by alcohol. alcohol, vodka, gin, brandy, schnapps ... hard liquors have long been an official dope regulated even by international conventions.

in all the armies of the world, before the battle, ordinary soldiers and officers would certainly take the glass they put on their chest. for courage, for sugaring, and mainly to protect against pain shock when injured. however, even after the battle, the soldiers certainly rolled another glass or two - for psychological relaxation.

as the military doctor Petr Izmestyev wrote, "the distribution of alcohol was practiced everywhere and often courage was of organic origin." for this reason, since August 1941, Stalin ordered daily supply of personnel with advanced vodka in the amount of 100 grams per person. so the famous "People’s Commissars" appeared, those same "your front hundred grams" about which the songs were composed.

in fact, an ordinary soldier accounted for at least three times a day. according to the memoirs of veterans, vodka on the front line accompanied the soldier day and night. each had a flask of alcohol and knew where, in which case, to get a glass of en-ze to cheer up. the same applies to Muslim armies, where the function of alcohol has always been performed by hashish and marijuana. but compared to real combat stimulants, alcohol and marijuana are baby talk. soon the soldiers learned to cheer themselves up with everything that can be obtained in the medical battalion.

diagnosis - "army disease"

the first experiments to increase the physical and psychological endurance of soldiers were performed after morphine was discovered in 1803. It is widely used as an anesthetic. it was readily used by Americans in the era civil war  1861-1865, later morphine was adopted by the Germans during the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 - 1871.

this drug was especially useful to the Germans. The German General Staff worked out a new strategy - the predecessor of the Blitzkrieg. troops learned to make rapid multi-kilometer throws. minimum rest, maximum movement. only forward - off-road, fully armed, without sleep.

unable to withstand these high-speed march throws, soldiers and officers took pain and fatigue off with morphine. used it intravenously (the benefit a few years before the war, a syringe was invented). nobody thought about the consequences. Morphine at that time was considered a harmless drug, almost a panacea for all diseases.

the result of intravenous pumping exceeded the wildest expectations of military doctors. morphine put on his feet even fatally tired, even wounded. invigorated by just one injection, the soldiers could stomp tens of kilometers tirelessly without sleep and food. Moreover, under the influence of morphine, they went without fear into any meat grinder, and when wounded they did not feel pain.

great thing! - rejoiced the General Staff. sim - win. soon the army was swept by a real epidemic of "trench" drug addiction. without morphine, soldiers and officers could no longer not only fight, but also live. Hospitals and hospitals in a matter of months turned out to be full of morphists. this did not prevent the military from using morphine again and again, although dependence on morphine was almost officially called the “army disease” - army disease. soldiers hooked on a needle were equated with war invalids.

in the end, dependence on morphine has become a problem of national importance not only in Germany, but also in a dozen countries. Noble doctors, along with dedicated chemists, decided to help the authorities cope with army drug addiction. it would be better if they did not!

in 1874, the famous British chemist Alder Wright obtained a new chemical substance, diacetylmorphine, from morphine production waste. they were driven by the very best motives. he thought diacetylmorphine would help morphinists break the habit of morphine.

at first, the discovery of Wright did not attach importance. however, in 1898, the young chemist Felix Hoffmann rediscovered this compound by enriching morphine with acetic acid. he came to the conclusion that the miracle cure is superior to morphine in its analgesic effect and is also not addictive and has no side effects. the famous German pharmacologist Heinrich Dreiser from the University of Göttingen agreed with him (what kind of high were these people ?!). both recommended the new medicine as an excellent painkiller, as well as a cough remedy. the patent office without hesitation issued the necessary papers and miraculous pills called "heroin" began to go down tons of pharmacological enterprises.

somewhat impoverished army pharmacy warehouses quickly replenished with a cheap novelty. Now she enjoys the fame of "medicine for all occasions" and becomes an army stimulator. heroin confirmed his fame. heroin-makers went even more readily into melee and bayonet attacks than morphinists.

sobering came only in the first world. The first country to completely ban heroin was the United States (the famous Harrison Pact came out in 1914), followed by the Germans, the British and the French. however, the British and their eternal antagonists, the French, had no less powerful combat stimulants of plant origin in reserve. it's cola and coca.

from blacks to nuts

the first to know the marvelous action of the stake nut was the French colonialists. blinking around the expanses of Africa in the nineteenth century, they drew attention to the amazing stamina of the natives. loaded to the eyeballs, they could easily brush off a day for rainforest  70 and more kilometers, without showing fatigue. why such agility? - choking, the French military, gray with dust, consulted, wiping sweaty faces and bandaging his broken legs in blood.

one of the French military doctors decided at his own peril and risk to understand the causes of the phenomenon. and found that the natives' advantage was not in skin color and physical fitness, but in their diet. on the march, the natives did not stop chewing on the fruits of the stake nut. walnut, so valued by the Africans that it even served as an all-African currency in trade settlements between tribes. To the doctor’s inquiries about his properties, the Negroes unanimously replied that Kola was a gift from the gods and a useful thing in every way. satisfies hunger, gives strength, amuses the soul and protects from all diseases.

the French decided to hastily adopt the experience of the natives. crushed walnut powder, they began to slowly feed the soldiers before the battle. the effect was fantastic. stamina on the march almost doubled. neither the scorching sun, nor the complex terrain was no longer an obstacle for the servicemen. they simply did not notice them.

a report flew to Paris about a miraculous tool found in the wilds of Africa to increase the combat effectiveness of infantry. the luminaries of French pharmacology immediately took up secret clinical trials of the delivered samples. they managed to get an extract from the pulp of a nut, it was called the "accelerator" and began to be added to soldier's crackers. Hooray, it worked out! on cola-rusks and water alone, the nutcrackers spent hours perling in the desert with the stubbornness of camels. and then pharmacologists suddenly faced a problem. and how she got up ...

it turned out that miracle nuts not only relieve fatigue and invigorate, but also intensify sexual desire a hundredfold. cola turned out to be a powerful aphrodisiac. for the aging bourgeois who liked to take a walk along the Pigalle dance, this was a pleasant surprise. but for the military - quite the opposite. without cola, they didn’t even know where to put extra hormones bursting in the desert. and then this elephant pathogen. in order to avoid unpleasant excesses in the barracks, the army sadly abandoned the "accelerator."

however, then someone came up with the idea to experiment with cola leaves, where there was also a lot of invigorating caffeine. the bitter extract from the leaves of the plant combined perfectly with chocolate and gave the soldiers a guaranteed supply of vigor. such chocolate became an extra pack for the next half century: it was included in the diet of military sailors, pilots and paratroopers - so that in the event of a state of emergency, it would give strength to hold out and get to your own. had such an “en ze” of our maresyev - and the hedgehog would have stayed alive.

bubble gum and incas

no less interested in the army and coca, growing on another continent - in Latin America, in the mountainous Andes. the ancient Aztecs and Mayans chewed the leaves of this shrub for the same reason that African blacks gnawed on stake nuts. indefatigability, vigor, good mood ...

the famous Spanish doctor and botanist Nicolas Monardes was the first to pay attention to the wonderful properties of coca, describing hundreds of plants of America in his works “good news from the new world” and “medical history of western India” (as America was then called). in 1580 he brought coca leaves to Europe. alas, unlike coca tobacco, it did not arouse much interest either among doctors or the nobility, who was greedy for overseas novelties. the reason is that during a long journey, coca leaves have lost their euphoric effect. For several centuries, Europe forgot about Coca.

it was not until the 19th century that the natural scientist Jan Swatoplek Presl again returned to the magical properties of coca. in the book "universal botany" he wrote: "Indians pick coca leaves from a bush, dry it in the shade, then mix it with ash and chew like Indians chew betel nut. Moreover, they do not experience hunger or thirst, but in the way of coca they said it protects them from longing, fatigue and fatigue. "

curious evidence of what a person under coca is capable of is preserved. Czech travelers hanselka and sikmund, who visited the silver and tin mines of Bolivia in the 50s of the last century, were surprised to note that “the miners are forced to climb up to their workplaces to a height of 4 thousand meters. Each such way to work means in fact, a good climbing trip.

and in the conditions of rarefied air it is not a trifle. even for those Indians who were born and raised here. therefore, climbing up once, they work without food and sleep for 60 hours (!) in a row. how is this possible? thanks to coca. they chew her here all the time. from small to large. Coca makes them forget about hunger, thirst and fatigue and turns them essentially into real machines ... "

in 1850, coca was first used in throat surgery. five years later, cocaine was first obtained from coca leaves, which will later be transported to heaven (as a remedy for all diseases, from neurasthenia to syphilis), psychoanalysis father, Vienna doctor Sigmund Freud. he will also suggest that cocaine is effective in treating morphine addiction.

as far as Europe is concerned, by that time it already had its own Coca-Cola - a very popular mariani wine containing more than 7 mg of cocaine per ounce. Its author, Angelo Mariani, enlisted the support of his product from many influential people of the time, including Thomas Edison and Alexander Dumas. and Pope Leo ii even presented Mariani with a special commemorative medal - for services to the fatherland.

in 1883, after spending several years studying the properties of cocaine, the German physician Theodor Aschenbrandt recommended using it in the army to increase the endurance of soldiers. cocaine is becoming one of the army's stimulants on the fronts of the first world. soldiers and officers energetically powdered their noses, reconciling themselves to the trench life. There is a version that the famous psychological attacks - we build on machine guns - are caused by cocaine mixed with alcohol.

later revealed another property of coca, which turned out to be just a gift for the navy. The famous ethnographer Tur Heyerdahl, who traveled on a “kon-tiki” raft from Peru to the islands of Polynesia, heard the legend that the ancestors of the Polynesians crossed the ocean, carrying some plant leaves. it quenched thirst and allowed to drink sea water for a long time without harm to health. scientists, becoming interested in native fables, and soon came to the conclusion that it was about Peruvian coca ...