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The most powerful ancient army. The military elite of antiquity: the most courageous fighters about whom legends have formed. Ancient Greek warriors from Thebes

The great empires of the distant past knew only one path of development. In those days, political differences were resolved very simply: whoever is stronger is right. But military expansion could not be based solely on numerical advantage - tactics, strategy, professional soldiers and a strong leader were an integral part of successful wars of conquest. Here are some of the most powerful armies of the ancient world, led by brilliant generals who were far ahead of their time.

Ancient Egypt

By the time of Ramses II (1250 BC), Egypt had the largest army in the world. The empire could put about a hundred thousand soldiers on the battlefield. Light war chariots complemented the infantry, turning the Egyptian army into a real death machine. The millstones of this thresher crushed the hordes of the Hittites, who dared to encroach on the power of the great pharaoh.

Persian empire

Cyrus II, also known as Cyrus the Great, directed all the resources of the Persian Empire to constant expansion, creating one of the greatest armies of all time, and the military training of the Persians was also at the highest level, which was even noted by Greek military leaders.

Macedonia

Philip II became king of Macedonia in 359 BC. The king initiated a series of military reforms, turning a previously ineffective army into a formidable force. To begin with, the number of regular detachments increased to 30,000 people; special corps of engineers working with siege equipment were introduced. To his son, the great Alexander of Macedon, Philip left a professional, battle-hardened army, with which he easily conquered almost half the world.

The Roman Empire

The glory of the Roman Empire was forged with the spears of legionnaires. The peak of the power of the Romans began around 30 BC, when Emperor Augustus set about restructuring his legions. He increased the number of soldiers in each of them to five thousand and in a short time gathered under his command as many as twenty-eight legions. It is noteworthy that an exclusively professional soldier could become a legionnaire, which made the army of Rome almost invincible. Already at the end of the reign of Augustus, by 14 BC, the number of the imperial army exceeded 250,000 thousand people.

Empire of the Huns

The Huns became the cause of the Great Migration and the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Under the leadership of Attila, at one time known as the “Scourge of God,” the Huns plundered and burned hundreds of cities. The Romans considered the nomads barbarians, but regardless of the way of life, Attila was an incredibly smart and cunning strategist with outstanding leadership qualities.

Righteous Caliphate

At the zenith of power, the borders of the Righteous Caliphate spanned more than 6 million square kilometers. The Middle East, North Africa, the Caucasus, Persia, Balochistan, the Mediterranean and the Iberian Peninsula were conquered in just twenty years. The Caliphate’s army was growing with each new conquered people, and by 657 not a single enemy could cope with the army of one hundred thousandth.

Mongol Empire

Contrary to popular belief, Genghis Khan's army was not excessively large. The great military leader was indeed able to unite most of the nomadic tribes from the steppes of Central Asia, but the Mongolian army always relied on excellent tactics, high mobility and the ability to adapt as quickly as possible in any new situation.

Theme number 1. The origin and development of the army from Ancient Russia to the Russian centralized state.

Lecture No. 1. Army and War of the Ancient World.

Training questions:

2. Wars of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The origin of the principles of military art. General art of Miltiad, A. of Macedon, J. Caesar.

Introduction

In the ancient social basis lay the division of societies into two main antagonistic classes: slaves and slaveholders, between which an irreconcilable struggle was constantly waged.

To keep the slaves in obedience, as well as to capture new lands and slaves, along with other government bodies, an army was created - an armed organization of people.

A slaveholding society could develop only with a continuous influx of slaves from outside. Therefore, the era of the slave system is history bloody warsthe devastation of many countries, the mass capture and extermination of entire nations. Due to frequent wars, the map of the regions of the world, especially Near and Central Asia, has changed repeatedly.

Along with the wars of conquest, fair ones were also waged in order to protect themselves from the aggressor or liberate themselves from their domination. Slaves were in an open battle with slave owners. Often, and uprisings escalated into wars. Often there were civil wars between various factions of the ruling classes for power and wealth.

During these wars military organization and military art have been greatly developed.

1. The emergence of armies, their acquisition, composition and armament.

The economy of slave owners could exist only under the condition of a continuous influx of cheap labor - slaves. They were delivered mainly by war. Therefore, in order to keep the huge masses of slaves in obedience, to continuously replenish and increase their number, as well as enslave their own and other peoples, the slave owners needed strong armies.

The slave states of ancient Mi (Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, China, Greece, Carthage, Rome, etc.) throughout their existence waged numerous, almost uninterrupted wars, which, as a rule, were unfair, aggressive. They continued the policy of slaveholders by violent means. A natural side of this process was the emergence of another kind of war - just and liberation wars.

Based on the foregoing, it follows that military art in the ancient world received significant development.

Army manning.

The armies of slaveholding states had a distinct class character. Not only the command, but also the rank and file was composed of representatives of the ruling class. Slaves were allowed into the army in very limited numbers and were used to carry out various kinds of auxiliary work (porters, servants, construction workers, etc.). And, although over the long period of the existence of slavery, the methods of manning and the organizational structure of armies have repeatedly changed, their armament and military art have been improved, but the class essence of the armies has remained unchanged.

In slave society, the following basic systems of manning were used:

The combination of permanent units with the militia. This system of manning took place when folding slave states. Its core was the permanent detachments created by representatives of the emerging tribal nobility. During the war, this army was strengthened by a militia of peasant communes.

Caste system. It was especially developed in the armies of the countries of the Ancient East (Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, India). Under her, the army consisted of professional soldiers who served for life and passed on their profession by inheritance (the so-called warrior caste).

The police system. Has taken place in most states Ancient world during the heyday of the slave system. Its essence was that every citizen of this state, receiving military training in his youth, was considered military obliged until he was old (in Greece from 18 to 60 years old, in Rome from 17 to 45-50). If necessary, he could be drafted into the army at any time. According to Engels, it was a typical slave police.

Hired system. This system of staffing armies with professional soldiers was established in the states of Ancient Greece in the 4th century. BC e., and in ancient Rome - in the II century. BC e. The transition to it was due to the stratification of ancient society and the relatively rapid reduction in the number of free citizens, who under the police system gave the bulk of the soldiers. The growth of production caused the further development of slave relations. Large-scale production arose based on cheap slave labor. As a result of competition with large-scale production, under the burden of excessive burdens, small producers went bankrupt. As they went bankrupt, the old foundation of the military power of the state disappeared. The crisis of the slaveholding society has identified new sources and methods of recruiting armies - the transition from a slave militia (police) to a hired army.

The acquisition by the armies of a professional character was also greatly facilitated by the frequent and lengthy wars.

The essence of the hired system was that the state hired warriors for a fee, who considered military service as their main profession. Mercenary armies were composed of the poorest sections of the population, declassed elements, freedmen and even foreign (barbarian) tribes. At the stage of decomposition and decline of the slave system, when the class of slave owners began to pay more and more for the “blood tax”, mercenaryism turned into the main system of manning.

Armament.

The development of social production in the ancient world led to the improvement of weapons. The production of a slaveholding society was characterized not only by the fact that man had won metal from nature and created metal weapons, but also by the fact that this weapon was constantly being improved. The achieved level of production made it possible to produce the simplest metal weapons - spears, swords. Arrowheads, protective metal armor. The level of development of production has already allowed to accumulate some stocks of weapons. Material possibilities were created for the construction of fortresses, the simplest military vehicles, as well as large sea fleets consisting of rowing ships.

First of all, hand weapons developed and improved. The Greek spear (2 m) and the Macedonian sarissa (4-6 m) were shock weapons. For melee also used swords, battle axes, daggers. For combat at short distances bows with arrows, darts and slings were used. The maximum range of archery was 200 m, and the best aimed shooting was conducted at a distance of up to 100 m. The rate of fire during archery was 4-6 rounds per minute. Darts darted at a distance of up to 60 m.

Serf and siege equipment developed, which reached the highest perfection among the Romans. During the siege of fortresses, they widely used rams and propelling mechanisms (catapults, ballista, onagra, etc.). Catapults threw stones weighing up to 0.5 t at a distance of up to 450 m. Ballista threw stones and large arrows (from 30 to 160 kg) at a distance of 600-900 m.

In general, the improvement of weapons was mainly due to the quantity and quality improvement of metals that went into the manufacture of weapons (copper, bronze and, finally, iron). In addition to weapons, the warriors of the ancient world also had protective equipment - shields, helmets, shells, which were made of wood. Leather and metal.

Thus, the armaments of the armies of the ancient world consisted of various types of knives, which had a decisive influence on the organization and methods of military operations of the troops of that time.

Organization of troops.

Under the slave system for the first time, the foundations of the organizational structure of the armed forces were formed. They were divided into army and the fleet. The army, in turn, was divided into two types of troops - infantry and cavalry. At that time, the beginnings of the engineering troops and the rear services first appeared. The initial forms of tactical organization of troops also arose. They achieved the greatest perfection in the armies of Ancient Greece and Rome.

The forms of organization of slaveholding armies were directly dependent on the methods of warfare and war in general. With the changing methods of warfare, they changed.

So, united by common ties, the peasants of the states of the Ancient East, as well as Greece and Rome of the period of their formation, conducted hostilities by large masses, where each warrior felt the direct support of a neighbor. The most perfect form of such an organization distinguished the armies of the ancient Greek states.

The main organizational unit of the ancient Greek armies was the phalanx, which acted as a single monolithic mass, not dissected tactically. Its structure included heavy infantry ("hoplites"), which had a long heavy spear and sword, as well as full metal protective equipment (shield, shell, helmet, legguards, leggings). The numerical composition of the phalanx reached 8-16 thousand people, and sometimes more. The light infantry, armed mainly with throwing weapons and having lightweight protective equipment made of leather or quilted fabric, and the cavalry had detachment organization and during the conduct of hostilities they performed mainly auxiliary tasks.

The further development of the methods of warfare, the increased importance of maneuver in connection with this, forced the commanders of antiquity to look for new forms of organization of the army. Such a new form was the legion - the main organizational unit of the Roman army. The Legion consisted of 4.5 thousand soldiers (3 thousand heavily armed foot soldiers - “legionnaires”, 1.2 thousand lightly armed foot soldiers - “velites” and 300 horsemen.

Initially, the legion did not organizationally differ from the phalanx. In the 4th century BC its organizational structure has been improved. The Legion was divided into 30 maniples, each of 60-120 people. The cavalry of the Legion consisted of 10 Turm. In each tour there were 30 riders. Subsequently (I century BC), the organization of the legion was again improved. The Legion began to be divided into 10 cohorts (500-600 people each). Each cohort consisted of 3 maniples. The cohort also included cavalry and propelling mechanisms.

Maneuvering actions led to an increase in the role of cavalry. This is especially evident in the wars waged by Alexander the Great. Skillfully combining the actions of cavalry with infantry, as a rule, he achieved success. Many prominent commanders of the ancient world achieved success in wars because they timely adapted the organization of their armies to the changing methods of warfare. This explains the fact that commanders usually acted as reformers of troops (Ifikrat, Alexander of Macedon, Mari, Caesar, Tigran and others).

The military art of Ancient Greece was created and developed on the basis of the slave-owning mode of production, which reached a mighty peak in this country. The military art of Ancient Greece is the result of the development of a slave-owning society and arising in the process of social relations. The totality of production relations, which constitute the basis of a slave-owning society, was a decisive force that determined the character of the Greek armies, their methods of waging war and battle.

In the VII - VI century BC e. primitive communal relations in Greece gave way to the slave system. The ancient tribal associations in the course of the fierce class struggle gave way to slave-owning city-states (policies), each of which had its own military organization. The state bore the name of the city, which was the center of the adjoining small territory. The most significant of these states were Athens, Sparta, Thebes.

Greek slave states were mostly republics, which were political organizations of slave owners. Depending on the correlation and alignment of class forces, they had a democratic or oligarchic form of government, which determined the internal and external policies of the polis and reflected on the composition and structure of its armed forces.

In order to keep the slaves in obedience and to ensure an increase in their number, a good military organization was needed. Such a military organization was slave police. This militia had a single class person - it consisted of slaveholders and ensured the interests of this class. The period of the slaveholding police continued until the end of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC).

The responsibilities of various categories of citizens militarily were determined depending on their property status. Persons holding senior public positions did not serve in the army. The richest citizens had to supply the state with equipped ships. Wealthy citizens served in the cavalry. Small landowners manned the heavy infantry, and the poor served as light infantry or sailors in the navy. All weapons were acquired at their own expense.

The highest level reached the military organization of Sparta and Athens.

Sparta was a slave-owning military state, the whole system of education of which was aimed at developing a warrior from every Spartan. The Spartans paid the main attention to the development of physical strength, endurance and courage. All these qualities in Sparta were valued very highly. The warrior was required to unconditionally obey the commanders. Elements of military discipline were instilled in the future warrior from the school bench. The Spartan was ready to die rather than leave the post. A major role in strengthening military discipline was played by public opinion .. at the same time corporal punishment was also applied. In their songs, the Spartans glorified the brave warriors and condemned cowardice:

“It’s glorious to lose life, among the valiant fallen soldiers,

To a brave husband in battle for the sake of his homeland ...

Boys, fight in rows, don't be an example

The flight of shameful il cowardice miserable to others ... "

From 7 to 20 years old, the Spartan was trained, after which he became a full citizen. The education of the Spartan was aimed at developing his contempt for luxury, obedience, endurance, physical strength and dexterity. Teenagers were brought up in harsh conditions: they were often forced to starve, suffer hardships and were often punished for the slightest fault. Most of the time was devoted to physical exercises (running, wrestling, javelin and discus throwing) and war games. Singing, music and dancing were also aimed at developing the qualities necessary for warriors. So, for example, warlike music was supposed to arouse courage.

Much attention was paid to the development of a military language. The Spartans were famous for their ability to speak briefly and clearly. From Laconia, the expressions “conciseness” and “laconic” came. “With him or on him,” said the mother to her son, giving the shield (with him the victor, on him the dead). When the Persian king at Thermopylae demanded that the Greeks surrender their weapons and shields, they answered him: "Come and take it."

For Spartans, training prevailed over training. They had elements of drill training, which were further developed in the Roman army. Military reviews were periodically held to check combat readiness. Anyone who was overweight at the show beyond the standards established for a warrior was punished. Military reviews ended in competitions.

All Spartans were considered military liable from 20 to 60 years. Their armament was heavy. They had a spear, a short sword, and protective armor: a round shield, a helmet, a shell, and greaves (total weight - up to 30)). Such a heavily armed warrior was called hoplite. Each hoplite had a servant - helot, who carried his protective equipment during the campaign. The Spartan army also included light infantry, armed with light spears, darts (darted at 20-60m) or a bow with arrows.

The core of the Spartan army was hoplites (2-6 thousand people). Light infantry was much larger. In some wars, there were several tens of thousands of people. The Spartans had a fairly clear organizational structure. But in battle, these units did not operate on their own. All hoplites were part of the same phalanx (monolith), which was a closely closed linear construction of heavily armed warriors with a depth of several lines. The phalanx arose from the closed system of clan and tribal units and was a military expression of the finally formed Greek slave state.

The technical prerequisite for its occurrence was the development of the production of uniform weapons.

The Spartan phalanx usually had a depth of 8 lines. In this case, its length along the front was 1 km. Before the battle of the Levctra, the Spartan phalanx was considered invincible.

The battle order of the army was not limited only to the phalanx. Arms and slingers easily covered the phalanx from the front, started a battle, and when the offensive began, the phalanxes went to its flanks and to the rear to support them.

There were two kings in Sparta. One of them went to war, and the other remained to lead the state, prepare reserves and solve other problems.

In battle, the king was in the first line on the right flank. On the flanks were the most powerful warriors.

The weak spot of the Spartans was the lack of technical means of struggle and a weak fleet (only 10-15 warships).

The heyday of Spartan military art falls on the VIII - VII centuries. BC.

Military organization of Athens.

In connection with the destruction of the remnants of clan relations, the citizens of the state are gradually divided into 4 groups:

1 gr - supplies to the state of funds for warfare

2 gr - equipped with riders

3 gr - completed hoplites

4 gr - light infantry and navy.

Each young man, having reached the age of 18, underwent military training during the year. Then at the show he received combat weapon and took the oath. In the 2nd year of service, he was enrolled in the border detachments, where he underwent field training. After this service, until the age of 60, the Athenian was considered liable for military service. It was a police system. However, as a result of numerous wars and training systems in peacetime, the Athenian gradually turned into a professional warrior.

The command of the army and navy of Athens belonged to a collegium of 10 strategists, who during the war commanded in turn.

The main military force of Athens was the fleet. With his help, Athens triumphantly repelled the invasion of the Persians and challenged Sparta in the struggle for hegemony in Greece. Athens reached its highest sea power in the 5th century. BC e. Its foundations were laid by Themistocles (480 BC). At the time of the Persian invasion, Athens had more than 200 ships in service, and by the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (431 BC), more than 300 ships. The main type of ship was a three-deck trireme (170 rowers in 3 rows - a row on each of the decks). The nose of the ship was studded with copper. In addition to the rowers, there were also sailors on the trireme, who controlled the sails, and landing soldiers. There were up to 200 people. The naval tactics of the Athenians boiled down to the following: to board the ship and ram the enemy’s ship. Often, the Athenians rushed on board, previously knocking down the oars and the steering wheel of an enemy ship.

The second component of the Athenian armed forces was the army. It was also based on hoplites. The armament of the Athenian hoplite consisted of a 2 m long spear and defensive armament, which was lighter than the Spartan. There was light infantry and cavalry. The Athenian cavalry was small (since horse breeding in Greece was not developed) and performed mainly auxiliary tasks. She fought on bareback horses, using throwing weapons.

The battle order of the Athenians, like the Spartans, was a phalanx. For the first time it is mentioned in the description of the Salamis war in 592 BC. e. In terms of construction and tactical principles, the Athenian phalanx was similar to the Spartan one, but differed from the last by a frantic onslaught (F. Engels). Starting from the 1st half of the 5th century BC e., the Athenians began to use siege and throwing weapons.

When educating and training Athenian warriors, much attention, unlike the Spartans, was paid to both physical and mental development. Education and training of the Athenians had several stages and lasted from 7 to 20 years. As a result of such training, the Athenians were strong, agile and dexterous warriors. Beauty, a tall figure, an outward expression of strength and dexterity should favorably distinguish the slave owner from the slave. Along with this, the Athenians paid great attention to the training of their thinking.

In the physical education of the Greeks, the Olympic Games, which were held regularly every 4 years, were of great importance. The first olympiad known to us is dated 776 BC. e. The Olympic Games turned into big holidays, during which all the Greek wars stopped. The games were held in the form of competitions, to which the mass of the people flocked, but only noble citizens participated in them. The popularity of games among the Greeks was very great. The winners of the competitions enjoyed fame and honor. The program of the Olympic Games gradually developed and became more complicated. At first, they included only running at 192 meters and wrestling. Then the program included long-distance running, pentathlon, fist fight, fist fight with wrestling, armored running, horse racing.

Athenian military discipline was supported by a sense of civic duty. Unlike the Spartans, Athenian commanders enjoyed limited rights. Corporal punishment was not applied. Upon returning from the campaign, the military leader could file a complaint against the offender to the popular assembly, which determined the measure of punishment.

Thus, although the Greek armies were in the form of police, nevertheless, they can rightfully be considered regular. They had a single manning system, a clear organizational structure, uniform weapons, a training and education system, a clear military order and firm discipline.

Take a look at modern worldwho is mired in brutal wars and conflicts. How much has changed in it since antiquity? Man is belligerent in nature, and he always either defends himself or attacks. In this article you will learn about ten military cultures that instilled fear in the Ancient World.

1. Praetorian Guard (Ancient Rome)

Ancient Rome was famous for its warriors and innovative military strategies. The Praetorian Guard was considered the elite of the Roman army.

The Praetorians served as the personal bodyguards of the rulers of the Roman Empire. In addition, they often posed tasks that are characteristic of modern special forces. The Roman emperor Nero sent his Praetorians to search for the source of the Nile River, and also ordered them to collect the intelligence necessary to conquer Ancient Egypt. The tasks of some members of the Praetorian Guard used to include such inglorious things as beating up civilians who did not show due respect and enthusiasm when they were introduced to the emperor. Praetorians could also patrol the streets of the city, keep order and suppress riots.

Members of the Praetorian Guard considered themselves to be true Roman soldiers. They differed from ordinary citizens and barbarian hordes, which were massively recruited into the Roman army. However, history does not know cases where Praetorians and barbarians fought on opposite sides; however, the former always selflessly defended Rome and its rulers, and the latter did not care whose interests to uphold - they were only interested in money.

Judging by historical records and surviving tombstones, only about 40 percent of Praetorians were able to serve the entire term of service in the Roman army, which was sixteen years. For this, they subsequently relied on a good pension.

Members of the Praetorian Guard included foot soldiers, cavalrymen and archers; in which case they could always replace the broken units of the Roman army.

The Praetorian Guard was officially disbanded in about 190 AD. Throughout their history, the Praetorians have had a different reputation; for the most part, it depended on the popularity of the emperor they served. Sometimes Praetorians had to take matters into their own hands.

When the Roman emperor Lucius Septimius Severus ordered the dissolution of the Praetorian guard, its members were ordered to abandon their horses. Each soldier had several pieces. History knows of cases where the Praetorian was so devoted to his horse that he first killed it, not wanting it to go to someone else, but after itself.

2. Assyrians

The Assyrians dominated the world of ancient history. They achieved this position to a large extent thanks to the elite - and merciless - army.

The first Assyrian city was founded around 2000 BC, the empire itself fell in 606 BC. During this time, the Assyrians were able to achieve significant progress in the field of culture, literature and construction.

An inscription found on the wall of one of the Assyrian temples and referring to the fate of the people conquered by the Assyrians reads: “Near the city gate I erected a pillar, which was covered with skin torn from the bodies of the defeated husbands. I walled up some of them in a pillar, others I put on stakes located at the very top of it. ” It sounds sad and cruel. Similar methods were used to ensure that disaffected people were humble and did not try to raise a rebellion.

Around 1115 BC, the Assyrian king Tiglathpalasar III decided to create his army. Previously, ordinary peasants took part in military battles, who, against their will, were called up for service and forced to take up arms. The army created by Tiglathpalasar III was completely different. To train and fight - this is the main task that was set for volunteers and recruited soldiers. The army of Tiglathpalasar III consisted of foot soldiers, cavalrymen and archers, as well as engineers and builders specializing in military affairs. They created siege weapons that the world had never seen before.

Assyrian masters, as you know, were the first to make weapons and armor from iron, which in properties and quality was much better than bronze. In addition, the Assyrian army was famous for using methods and techniques of waging psychological warfare, as well as inhuman treatment of prisoners of war. The Assyrians burned them alive, cut off parts of their body, and so on.

The power and power of the kings of Assyria was based solely on fear.

3. Ten thousand mercenaries ( Ancient Greece)

We became aware of the ten-thousand-strong army of mercenaries thanks to the works of the ancient Greek writer, historian, commander and politician Xenophon, who, incidentally, was one of its hastily elected leaders.

A ten-thousand-strong army of mercenaries was created in 401 BC by Cyrus the Younger (the son of the Persian king Darius II and his half-sister Parisatida), who decided to overthrow his older brother, the king of Persia. Cyrus the Younger was ultimately killed in the rear of the enemy. His ten thousandth army lost its leader and could not leave hostile lands without a new leader. The role of the commander went to Xenophon. He had to withdraw the army from enemy territory. On their way home, they entered into battles with Persians, Halibs and Armenians, survived severe storms, famine and betrayal, overcame hot, barren deserts and impenetrable swamps. During this time, the size of the army of mercenaries decreased significantly. Xenophon described in some detail all the obstacles that they had to face when returning home to Greece.

Xenophon died in 354 BC. Throughout his life, he has written more than forty works, including Anabasis, or Ten thousand Retreat (the name speaks for itself).

4. Hyksos

In the XVIII century BC, a group of Jewish-Asian nomads settled in Egypt; their modern weapons and advanced methods of warfare have changed the face of the region for many centuries.

Early historians identified the Hyksos with biblical Jews, although it is not known for certain where they came from to Egypt. Translated from the Egyptian language, the word "Hyksos" means "rulers of foreign lands." In general, no specifics.

When the Hyksos came to Ancient Egypt, they brought with them achievements that looked truly revolutionary. It was after the Hyksos period that the Egyptians had two-wheeled chariots, block bows, advanced bronze weapons and armor. The Hyksos also presented them with advanced metalworking technologies and new ideas in the construction of fortifications and defense. Their rule can be called anything, but not military conquest.

The Hyksos originally populated the Nile Delta. After several decades, they captured Memphis and continued to spread their influence further. The Hyksos king Nehsi introduced the cult of the god Seth in Egypt.

The Hyksos ruled over Egyptian lands for over a century. Around 1550 BC, they were expelled from Egypt by Pharaoh Ahmosis I.

How the Hyksos managed to capture Egyptian lands is not clear to historians. However, it was thanks to them that Egypt became a more powerful state with a developed culture and advanced technologies.

5. Scythians

Scythians are one of the most mysterious ancient warriors. We know the representatives of this people as Scythians because the ancient Greeks called them so.

Scythians are nomadic Iranian-speaking tribes that existed from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD and lived in the steppe zone of the Northern Black Sea coast from the Danube to the Don. The first mention of them is contained in the works of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus. The Scythians wandered from one region to another, fought with each other and entered into marriage with representatives of their ethnic group. It happened that they settled in cities, and some of them even owned vast land.

Relatively recently, in the Altai mountains (Central Asia), archaeologists discovered two skeletons of Scythian warriors. The find very surprised scientists. There was a hole in the skull of one of the skeletons, presumably from an arrow. The reconstruction of the damaged areas of the skull showed that someone was desperately trying, using various methods (including crushing bones), to extract an arrow from the head of a dying warrior.

Herodotus describes the Scythians as ruthless killers and barbarians. Since the Scythians did not have a written language, all the facts that we know about them were obtained from biased, one-sided and biased sources. Modern research and finds allow us to receive more and more important and valuable information about the culture and lifestyle of the ancient Scythians.

When the Scythian king was dying, the most faithful, reliable and loyal people followed him to the next world. The findings discovered by archaeologists in royal tombs - skeletons with skulls pierced in a certain place, the remains of horses, weapons and armor that could be useful to soldiers in the afterlife.

Having studied mummified bodies, which, incidentally, were well preserved due to the unique method of embalming and burial in frozen ground, scientists came to the conclusion that the Scythians spent most of their time in the saddle and fiddled with stubborn horses. They used mainly meat for food, had average, by modern standards, growth, strong physique and intricate tattoos.

6. Amazon

Ancient Greek writers claimed that the Amazons were as fierce and merciless as the male warriors. For a long time, historians did not know what to do with the stories about these warlike women, but excavations and finds related to the ancient Scythians put everything in its place. They proved that the Amazons really existed.

The first mention of female warriors is contained in Homer's epic poem, The Iliad. Only in the 5th century BC did the Amazons begin to be considered real historical characters, and not fictional literary heroines. Mostly for this reason, modern historians were not sure that the Amazons actually existed, but archaeologists managed to dispel their doubts. When they discovered the burials of a group of representatives of the nomadic tribe Savromats, which were close to the Scythians of the Northern Black Sea Region or Central Asia (the opinions of scientists differ on this issue), they were very surprised, because in some of the tombs found were the remains of female warriors. They, as expected, were buried along with their weapons and various valuable items. This was one of the first convincing evidence of the existence of the Amazons, which Homer mentioned in the Iliad.

Since the number of nomadic tribes was relatively small, women had to take up arms in order to fight and hunt along with men. Their life depended on it, and, in the end, everyone dragged on himself no more than his weight, regardless of gender.

Now scientists are arguing over what language the word "Amazon" came from and what it means. The versions they put forward are as follows:

1) "Amazon" is greek word with the meaning "with one breast";
2) the name "Amazon" comes from the Iranian word "ha-mazan" - women warriors;
3) the word "Amazons" means "inviolable" (for men).

7. The Spartans

The Spartans are probably one of the most famous warriors of the Ancient World, but their reign lasted only a few decades. In 404 BC, they won a triumphant victory over the city-state of Athens and reached the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. In 374 BC, they were completely defeated and destroyed by the Thebians. Regarding what happened during the decisive battle between them, the debate has not subsided so far, since several surviving primary sources have been found. Surely we only know that Sparta was unable to recover from such a blow.

After the victory over the Athenians, the inhabitants of Sparta were so confident in their warriors that they decided not to enclose the city in which they lived with protective stone walls. We know very little about the lifestyle and military training of the Spartans - mainly because many historians considered them to be representatives of other civilizations.

The Spartans did not spend time and energy on activities such as farming; the necessary foodstuffs were delivered to their city-state from the conquered lands. The citizens of Sparta were more focused on the war. Long before starting to compete with Athens and Thebes, Sparta was faced with one problem - the constant uprisings of discontented and subjugated people.

The boys began to teach military skills from the age of seven. Upon reaching the age of twenty, they were divided into groups, in each of which they honed a specific combat skill.

The Spartans were incredibly loyal to the gods - they held religious holidays, held sacrificial rites, and so on. In Sparta, women had equal rights with men; if the father of the family died in battle, all his duties subsequently fell on the shoulders of the widow.

Probably the only thing that distinguishes the Spartans from other warriors of the Ancient World is that they did not compose poetic works about them. Spartan poets preferred to glorify not people, but war, horses and gods.

But if you are more interested in cinema Spartans, then go here and find out who played them.

8. The Immortals

"Immortals" is a group of ten thousand soldiers who were considered the elite of the Persian army. All written information about them was found in the works of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus. Unfortunately, there is no mention of “Immortals” anywhere else. Consequently, we cannot be 100% sure that Herodotus was writing the truth, but to refute his words today is also not realistic.

Why the elite detachment of the Persian army was called "Immortals" is not known for certain. It is possible that the name appeared as a result of an incorrect translation. According to some scholars, the ten-thousandth military elite was actually called more intricately, but less frighteningly, “Apple Bearers” (Apple Bearers; “apple” is a counterweight on the spear shaft).

According to Herodotus, the elite legion, which numbered exactly ten thousand people, had the task of replacing, if necessary, the soldiers of the Persian army who fell in battle. One of the most famous battlesin which "Immortals" participated, is the Battle of Thermopylae (approximately 480 BC). They fought against the Spartans side by side with the legendary army of Xerxes I. Perhaps they were not “Immortals”. In the writings of Herodotus, it is said that the armies of Xerxes I helped in the battle ten thousand Persian soldiers, armed with spears.

Be that as it may, the status, position and role of the “Immortals” in the war are the subject of heated debate, again, due to the lack of any evidence other than the writings of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus. And even the stone reliefs found in Persepolis did not help advance in solving the riddle associated with the Immortals.

9. Warriors of the Terracotta Army

In 1974, archaeologists discovered what later became the largest guarded historical site in China - the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang, in which row after row stood at least eight thousand full-sized terracotta statues of Chinese warriors armed with real weapons, horses and chariots. This is perhaps one of the most surreal archaeological sites ever found by archaeologists.

On the this moment from the imperial tomb managed to get about two thousand terracotta statues. Archaeologists have carefully studied each of them and concluded that they are all different. This suggests that the terracotta statues were sculpted from real people, namely the soldiers of the imperial army. The stone warriors represented differ in rank (officers and rank-and-file soldiers), as well as the type of weapon (spear, crossbow or sword).

The history of the real army, which became the prototype for the terracotta soldiers, is very surprising. In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang (real name Ying Zheng) declared himself emperor, ruler of the kingdom of Qin, putting an end to the centuries-old era of the Warring Kingdoms. He managed to do this partly thanks to the adoption of the mentality of total war.

By default, the Qin Shihuandi army had one undeniable advantage: in view of its internal location (in the territory remote from the sea or the border), it began expanding its own lands to the east, while gaining an excellent and much-needed opportunity to practice military affairs, as well as access to resources that other states did not have. In addition, the Qin Shi Huang warriors perfected the chariots. When Qin Shi Huang took the throne, his thirteen-year-old heir, the future ruler, went headlong into studying the methods and techniques of warfare.

Oddly enough, but in history, almost nothing is said about the real warriors who helped Emperor Qin Shi Huang in unifying China. He died in 210 BC; with his death, the dynasty fell.

10. Army of Ancient Macedonia

Everyone is known about who Alexander the Great was (in Western historiography it is better known as Alexander the Great), even those who have vague ideas about the history of the Ancient World. He is one of the greatest conquerors of all time; Naturally, he would hardly have succeeded in becoming one without a strong and powerful army. Also, Alexander the Great was partly to thank for this his father, Philip II, who created a great military culture.

When Philip II took the throne of Macedonia, most of the Greek army continued to be mainly volunteer forces. After spending several years in Thebes, Philip II decided to create an army of mercenaries. He established cavalry, which previously, in principle, did not exist, and hypastist squads. Among them were simple shield-bearers, “silver shields” (argyraspids) and the royal guard (from the ancient or Scandinavian word “warda” or “garda” - “guard, protect”). They acted together with the most notorious ancient Greek military detachments, phalangites, but historians have no idea what kind of weapons and armor they had, what they looked like and what kind of role they played. It is only known for certain that they were considered invincible in battle.

Philip II also decided to upgrade the weapons of the phalangists. He took away their heavy, bulky shields, replacing them with smaller ones, and provided them with longer spears, as well as advanced siege weapons (stairs, towers and rams) and artillery. Alexander of Macedon will be the first commander to use them on the battlefield. At the other end of the spectrum were skirmishers and highly mobile partisan detachments that could easily navigate even the most difficult and impassable terrain, move at incredible speed, attack the enemy with lightning speed, receive the necessary information and disappear in no time.

Philip II and Alexander of Macedon also created heavy cavalry units, the total number of which was two thousand people. On the battlefield they were covered by light cavalry, armed with spears.

Philip II created great army, which has become a homogeneous, single fighting force, a faithful oath given to his king.

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Have you been looking for this? Perhaps this is something that you could not find for so long?

TODAY IS OUR ARMY! WITH HOLIDAY YOU, MEN. AND, OF COURSE, LADIES SOMEONE PARTICIPATED!

Therefore, discussing this topic it is not necessary at all to speak only about the ancient Romans

You can just talk about the history of military art. Because being a soldier and winning is a genuine

MATERIAL FOR ALL SOLDIERS AND SIMPLY INTERESTING!

Brief historical background

Ancient Rome - the state that conquered the peoples of Europe, Africa, Asia, Britain. Roman soldiers were famous all over the world for their iron discipline (but not always it was iron), brilliant victories. The Roman generals went from victory to victory (there were cruel defeats), until all the peoples of the Mediterranean were under the weight of a soldier’s boot.

The Roman army at different times had different numbers, the number of legions, and various structures. With the improvement of military art, weapons, tactics and strategy changed.

In Rome, there was universal conscription. In the army, they began to serve as young men from the age of 17 and up to 45 in field units, after 45 to 60 they served in fortresses. Persons participating in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempted from service. Duration of service also changed over time.

At one time, due to the fact that everyone wanted to serve in the light infantry (weapons were cheap, they were purchased at their own expense), the citizens of Rome were divided into categories. This was done under Servius of Tullia. The 1st category included people who owned property that was valued at no less than 100,000 copper aces, the 2nd at least 75,000 aces, the 3rd at 50,000 aces, the 4th at 25,000 aces, and 5 -mu - 11.500 aces. All the poor were in the 6th category - proletarians, whose wealth was only offspring ( proles) Each property rank exhibited a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st category - 80 heavy infantry centuries, which were the main fighting force, and 18 horsemen centuries; only 98 centuries; 2nd - 22; 3rd - 20; 4th - 22; 5th - 30 centuries of lightly armed and 6th category - 1 centuria, a total of 193 centuries. Lightly armed warriors were used as a convoy of servants. Due to the division into categories, there was no shortage of heavily armed, lightly armed infantrymen and horsemen. The proletarians and slaves did not serve, since they were not trusted.

Over time, the state took over not only the maintenance of the warrior, but also withheld from it salaries for food, weapons and equipment.

After a grave defeat at Cannes and in a number of other places, after the Punic Wars, the army was reorganized. The salary was sharply increased, the proletarians were allowed to serve in the army.

Continuous wars demanded a lot of soldiers, changes in weapons, construction, training. The army became mercenary. Such an army could be led anywhere and against anyone. So it happened when Lucius Cornellius of Sulla came to power (1st century BC).

The organization of the Roman army

After the victorious wars of the 4th-3rd centuries BC. under the rule of Rome fell all the peoples of Italy. In order to keep them in obedience, the Romans granted one people more rights, others less, spreading mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law "divide and rule".

And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:

a) legions, in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry attached to them;

b) the Italian allies and the allied cavalry (after giving the Italians the rights of citizenship that flowed into the legion);

c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.

The main tactical unit was the legion. At the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 people and 900 horsemen, not counting 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the legion combatant.

Consul Mark Claudius changed the structure of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.

The Legion was divided into maniples (in Latin - a handful), centuries (hundreds) and decuries (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, squads.

Light infantry - Velites (literally - fast, mobile) marched ahead of the legion in the loose side and started a battle. Upon failure, it retreated to the rear and to the flanks of the legion. In total there were 1200 people.

Gastati (from the Latin “Gasta” - spear) - lancers, 120 people in the maniple. They made up the first line of the legion. Principles (first) - 120 people in the manipulation. Second line. Triarii (third) - 60 people in the maniple. Third line. The Triaries were the most experienced and experienced fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: “The matter has come to the Triaries.”

Each maniple had two centuries. There were 60 people in the Century of Gastat or Principles, and 30 people in the Centuries of Triarii.

The Legion was given 300 horsemen, amounting to 10 Turm. Cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.

At the very beginning of the application of the manipulative order, the legion went into battle in three lines and, if an obstacle arose that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, thus breaking the battle line, the maniple from the second line was in a hurry to close the gap, and the place from the second line was taken by the manipul from the third line . During the battle with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.

Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve, deciding the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion expected death. Therefore, over time, the Romans moved to the cohort system of the legion. Each cohort totaled 500-600 people and, with an attached horse detachment, acting separately, was a miniature legion.

The command staff of the Roman army

In tsarist times, the king was the commander. In the days of the republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded in turn. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the chief of the cavalry obeyed, in contrast to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were assigned to separate parts of the army.

Separate legions were commanded by the stands. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving way to the second pair, etc. The centurions were subordinate to the stands. Each centurium was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the manipul. The centurions had the right of a soldier for misconduct. They carried with them a vine - a Roman rod; this tool was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus spoke of a centurion whom the whole army knew under the nickname: “Give another!” After the reform of Mary, a companion of Sulla, the centurions of the triaries received big influence. They were invited to the military council.

As in our time, in the Roman army were banners, drums, timpani, trumpets, horns. The banners were a spear with a crossbeam, on which hung a cloth of plain material. Manipulas, and after the reform of the Maria cohort, had banners. Above the crossbar was an image of a beast (wolf, elephant, horse, wild boar ...). If the unit performed a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flagpole; this custom has survived to this day.

The icon of the legion under Mary was a silver eagle or a bronze. Under the emperors, it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest disgrace. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner to the last drop of blood. In difficult times, the commander threw a banner into the thick of the enemies in order to induce the soldiers to return him back and scatter the enemies.

The first thing the soldiers taught was to relentlessly follow the badge, the banner. The standard bearers were chosen from strong and experienced soldiers and were highly respected and respected.

According to the description of Titus Livius, the banners were a square cloth, tied to a horizontal bar, mounted on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. All of them were monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.

Until the Allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects, chosen from among the Roman citizens.

Great importance was attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the quartermaster service is a quaestor who was in charge of fodder and food for the army. He monitored the delivery of everything needed. In addition, each centuria had its foragers. Special officer like captenarmus in modern armyhanding out groceries to soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, bookkeepers, cashiers who gave soldiers salaries, fortune-teller priests, military police officials, spies, signaling trumpeters.

All signals were given by a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed by curved horns. When changing the guard, they blew the futsin pipe. The cavalry used a special long pipe bent at the end. The signal for the collection of troops for the general meeting was given by all the trumpeters assembled in front of the commander's tent.

Training in the Roman army

The training of the fighters of the Roman manipulated legion primarily consisted in teaching the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, filling in the gaps in the battle line at the moment of a collision with the enemy, in a hurry to merge into the general mass. Performing these maneuvers required more complex training than training a warrior who fought in the phalanx.

The training also consisted in the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.

The appearance of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver required more complex training. It is no accident that after the reform, Mary, one of his associates, Rutilius Rufus, introduced in the Roman army new system training, reminiscent of the training system of gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained soldiers (trained) could overcome fear and draw close to the enemy, attack from the rear a huge mass of the enemy, feeling only a cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like that. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. There were ten cohorts in the legion, not counting light infantry, and from 300 to 900 horsemen.

Fig. 3 - Cohort battle order.

Discipline

The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely in the power of the commander.

The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as well as failure to comply with the order. So, in 340 BC the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquat during reconnaissance without the order of the commander-in-chief entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He spoke about this in the camp with enthusiasm. However, the consul condemned him to death. The sentence was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.

In front of the consul there were always ten lictors carrying bunches of rods (fascia, fascinus). AT war time an ax was inserted into them. A symbol of the power of the consul over his repaired. First, the offender was cut with rods, then his head was chopped off with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem translated into Russian means ten. So did Crassus after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were flushed and then executed.

If a soldier fell asleep at the post, he was put on trial, and then he was beaten to death with stones and sticks. For easy trivialities they could flog, demote, transfer to hard work, reduce salaries, deprive of citizenship, sell into slavery.

But there were rewards. They could increase their ranks, increase their salaries, reward them with land or money, were exempted from camp work, and were awarded with insignia: silver and gold chains, brastets. The award was held by the commander himself.

The usual awards were medals (faler) with the image of the face of a god or commander. The highest marks of distinction were wreaths (crowns). Dubovy was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen in battle. Crown with a battlement - the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of an enemy fortress. A crown with two golden noses of the ships - the soldier who first stepped on the deck of the enemy ship. A siege wreath was given to the commander who lifted the siege from the city or fortress or liberated them. But the highest award - a triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, while at least 5,000 enemies were to be killed.

The triumphant rode on a gilded chariot in a purple robe embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was harnessed by four snow-white horses. They carried military booty in front of the chariot and led prisoners of war. The triumph was followed by relatives and friends, songwriters, soldiers. Triumphal songs sounded. Every now and then shouting “Io!” and “Triumph!” (“Io!” Corresponds to our “Hurray!”). The slave, who stood behind the triumph in the chariot, reminded him that he was a mere mortal and that he would not be conceited.

For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, in love with him, following him, made fun of and laughed at his bald head.

Roman camp

The Roman camp was well thought out and fortified. The Roman army was said to carry a fortress. As soon as a halt was made, the construction of the camp immediately began. If it was necessary to move on, the camp was abandoned unfinished. Even broken for a short while, differed from the one-day more powerful fortifications. Sometimes the army remained in the camp for the winter. Such a camp was called winter, instead of tents, houses and barracks were built. By the way, in the place of some Roman camps such cities as Lancaster, Rochester and others arose. From the Roman camps grew Cologne (the Roman colony of Agrippinn), Vienna (Windobona) ... Cities, at the end of which there is a "... Chester" or "... Castres", arose on the site of the Roman camps. “Kastrum” is a camp.

The campsite was chosen on the southern dry hillside. Nearby there should have been water and pasture for convoy cattle, fuel.

The camp was a square, later a rectangle, whose length was one third longer than the width. First of all, the place of the praetorium was planned. This is a square area, the side of which was 50 meters. Here the tents of the commander, altars, a tribune were erected to address the soldiers of the commander; there was a trial and a gathering of troops. To the right was the quaestor's tent, to the left - the legates. Tents of stands were placed on both sides. In front of the tents, a street 25 meters wide passed through the entire camp, another 12 meters wide crossed the main street. At the ends of the streets were gates and towers. Ballistics and catapults stood on them. (the same throwing gun, received the name from a missile, ballistic metal core, catapult - arrows) On each side in right rows stood the tents of the legionnaires. From the camp, the troops could march without hustle and bustle. Each centuria occupied ten tents, manipul - twenty. The tents had a prefabricated skeleton, a gable prefabricated roof and were covered with leather or a rough cloth. The tent area is from 2.5 to 7 square meters. m. There was a decurium in it - 6-10 people, two of whom were constantly on guard. The tents of the Praetorian Guard and Cavalry were large sizes. The camp was surrounded by a picket fence, a wide and deep moat and a shaft 6 meters high. Between the shafts and tents of the legionnaires there was a distance of 50 meters. This was done so that the enemy could not light the tents. An obstacle course was arranged in front of the camp from several contralation lines and barriers of pointed stakes, wolf pits, trees with pointed knots and woven together, forming an almost impassable obstacle.

Leggings were worn by Roman legionnaires from ancient times. Under the emperors were abolished. But the centurions continued to wear them. Leggings had the color of the metal from which they were made, sometimes painted.

In the time of Mary, the banners were silver, in the days of the empire, gold. The sheets were multi-colored: white, blue, red, purple.

Fig. 7 - Weapons.

The cavalry sword is one and a half times longer than the infantry sword. One-edged swords, handles were made of bone, wood, metal.

Pylum is a heavy spear with a metal tip and a rod. Tip with notches. The wooden shaft. The middle part of the spear is wrapped tightly to the coil with a cord. One or two brushes were made at the end of the cord. The tip of the spear and the shaft were made of soft forged iron, and to iron, made of bronze. Pylum was thrown on enemy shields. The spear that had stuck into the shield pulled him to the bottom, and the warrior was forced to drop the shield, since the spear weighed 4-5 kg \u200b\u200band dragged along the ground, as the tip and rod bent.

Fig. 8 - Skutums (shields).

Shields (scutums) took on a semi-cylindrical shape after the war with the Gauls in the 4th century. BC e. Scootums were made of light, well-dried, aspen or poplar boards tightly fitted to each other, covered with linen, and bovine skin on top. At the edge, the shields were bordered with a strip of metal (bronze or iron) and stripes were laid with a cross through the center of the shield. In the center was placed a pointed plaque (umber) - the top of the shield. Legionnaires kept in it (it was removable) a razor, money and other small things. On the inside there was a belt loop and a metal bracket, the name of the owner and the number of the century or cohort were written. The skin could be dyed: red or black. They put their hand into the belt loop and grabbed the staple, thanks to which the shield hung tightly on the arm.

Helmet in the center is earlier, later on the left. The helmet had three feathers 400 mm long; in ancient times, helmets were bronze, later iron. The helmet was sometimes decorated in the form of snakes on the sides, which at the top formed the place where the feathers were inserted. In later times, the only decoration on the helmet was a comb. At the top of the head, the Roman helmet had a ring into which a strap was threaded. The helmet was worn on the back or on the lower back, as they wear a modern helmet.

Fig. 11 - Pipes.

Roman velites were armed with darts and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. Velita were dressed in tunics, later (after the war with the Gauls) all legionnaires began to wear pants. Some of the Velites were armed with slings. At the slingers on the right side, over the left shoulder, bags for stones hung. Some velites might have swords. Shields (wooden) covered with leather. The color of the clothes could be anything but purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or walk barefoot. Archers in the Roman army appeared after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus near Brundisy.

Figure 12 - Centurion.

The centurions had silvered helmets, had no shields, and wore a sword on the right side. They had leggings and, as a distinctive mark on the armor on their chests, had an image of a vine twisted into a ring. During the time of the manipulative and cohort formation of the legions, the centurions were on the right flank of the centuries, maniples, and cohorts. The cloak is red, with all the legionnaires wearing red cloaks. Only the dictator and high commanders had the right to wear purple cloaks.

Fig. 17 - The Roman Horseman.

Animal skins acted as saddles. The Romans did not know the stirrups. The first stirrups were rope loops. The horses were not forged. Therefore, horses were very cherished.

References

1. Military history. Razin, 1-2 t. T., Moscow, 1987

2. On seven hills (Essays on the culture of ancient Rome). M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdal Leningrad, 1960.

3. Hannibal. Titus Livy; Moscow, 1947.

4. Spartak. Raffaello Giovagnoli; Moscow, 1985.

5. Flags of the states of the world. K.I. Ivanov; Moscow, 1985.

6. The history of ancient Rome, edited by V.I. Kuzishchino

This issue is based on the three-volume “Military History” by Razin and the book “On the Seven Hills” by M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdalsky. The issue is not a special historical study and is intended to help those involved in the manufacture of military miniatures.