Orders and telegrams of Makhno The orders and telegrams Makhno that we cite relate to the last days of the Old Man’s joint cooperation with the Soviet command. The first two documents that we publish are a response to the telegram of Comrade Kamenev, then Extraordinary

State educational institution of higher

Vocational education

"Russian Customs Academy"

St. Petersburg named after V. B. Bobkov branch

Russian Customs Academy

Department of Theory and History of State and Law

discipline "History of the domestic state and law"

on the topic: “Order system in Russia”

Completed by a 2nd year student

Full-time study

Faculty of Law

Fedorova Yu. S.

St. Petersburg

Introduction

Chapter 1. The history of orders and their classification

Chapter 2. The structure of the order

Chapter 3. The main orders and their functions

Conclusion

List of references

Introduction

At the turn of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, some worthy boyars who carried out standing orders, orders for managing the state economy, began to form an auxiliary apparatus in the person of clerks and clerks. They formed the office ("courtyards" and "huts"), where paperwork was conducted. This process dragged on for several decades (until the middle of the 16th century). In essence, each “hut” was the germ of an order - a permanent central state institution.

For the first time the word “order” as an institution is found in documents of 1512, but as a system of institutions, orders took shape under Ivan the Terrible.

By creating a centralized command system in which the serving nobility played the main role, the state limited the role of the feudal elite and negated the system of patrimonial control. The appearance of the command system of the central government, which existed until the time of Peter the Great, can be called one of the most important facts of Russian history in the mid-16th century.

Chapter 1. The history of orders and their classification

The birth of the command system of management dates back to the late XV - early XVI centuries. The central and local authorities were archaic and could not provide the necessary measure of centralization of the state. The emergence of orders is associated with the process of restructuring grand princely governance in the state system. This happened by imparting to the bodies of the palace and patrimonial type a number of important national functions.

During the period of fragmentation, the Grand Duke “ordered” (entrusted) the decision of affairs to his boyars as necessary. To be “in order” meant to be in charge of the assigned business. Therefore, in its formation, the system of orders went through a number of stages: from temporary orders of “orders” (in the literal sense of the word) as single orders to individuals to orders as a permanent order, which was accompanied by the corresponding design of the post - treasurer, ambassadorial, local, yamsky and other clerks. Then officials began to be given assistants, and special premises were allocated. From the middle of the 16th century, clerical-type institutions developed into state bodies of central and local government. The final execution of the order system falls on the second half of the XVI century. The execution of the command system allowed centralizing the administration of the country.

Orders as new central government bodies arose without a legislative basis, spontaneously, as needed. Some, having arisen, disappeared when there was no need, others were crushed into parts, turning into independent orders. With the increasing complexity of public administration tasks, the number of orders grew. In the middle of the XVI century, there were already two dozen orders. Over the course of the 17th century, up to 80 orders were recorded, up to 40 were constantly operating. There was no strict delineation of functions between orders.

The first order was Kazenny, who was in charge of the treasury of the prince and his archive. Following it was formed the Palace order (or the order of the big palace).

The orders can be divided into six groups according to the type of affairs they were engaged in, by the classes of persons and by the territories they controlled.

The first group consisted of the palace and financial management bodies: the already mentioned Palace (or the order of the Grand Palace) - the department of the former butler, who controlled the people and territories serving the palace; Order of the Big Treasury, which collected direct taxes and was in charge of the mint, Konyushenny; Hunter and others. Soon two more important orders were added to them: the Order of the Big Parish, which collected indirect taxes (trade duties, bridge and other money), and the Order of Accounts - a kind of control department.

The second group consisted of the military command and control bodies: The discharge order, which was in charge of the service population, which was soon divided into: Streletsky, Cossack, Inozemny, Pushkarsky, Reitarsky, Arms, Bronny, etc.

The third group includes judicial and administrative bodies for which the judicial function was the main: Local order (distribution and redistribution of estates and estates, litigation in property cases); Kholopiy: Robber (since 1682, the Detective) criminal-police cases, prisons; Zemsky carried out police and judicial management of the population of Moscow.

The fourth group includes regional government bodies that were created as new territories joined Moscow: in the 16th century. Moscow, Vladimirovskaya, Dmitrovskaya. The Ryazan quarter (quarter orders), in the 17th century their number increased to six or more, along with the others, the Siberian quarter (Siberian order) and the Little Russian order were added to them.

In the fifth group, the bodies of special management branches can be combined: Ambassadorial, Yamsky (postal pursuit), Stone (stone building and stone structures), Typography (from the time of Ivan the Terrible), Aptekarsky, Pechatny (state press), etc.

The sixth group consisted of departments of the state-church administration: the Patriarchal Court, the Order of Church Affairs, the Monastic Order.

A characteristic feature of the order management was the extreme fragmentation of departments and the lack of a clear delineation of functions between them. Along with the central branch administrations, there were regional orders governing the territories of individual lands, abolished by individual principalities, and newly conquered lands. There were also various small departments (Zemsky Dvor, Moscow Thunstvo, etc.). Not only regional, but also central orders had specially designated territories under their jurisdiction. Within its territory, the order collected taxes, did the court and reprisals. For example, an embassy order managed the Karelian land. Century was the heyday of the order management system in Russia. The main shortcomings of the command system of administration as a whole were revealed - the lack of a clear distribution of responsibilities between individual institutions, the confusion of administrative, financial and judicial issues, the clash of activities of different orders on the same territory. The bureaucratic apparatus expanded, the number of orders increased. As a result, in the last quarter of a century, such a powerful and cumbersome management system was formed that it hindered office work. In order to feel the scale and dynamics of processes in this area, one should take into account such a significant indicator as the number of employees of Moscow orders. The total number of employees of central command agencies in the mid-1620s was only 623 people, and by the end of the century their number had increased to 2,739 people.

Orders existed until the 18th century, when the presence of a large number of orders with intertwined functions, their insufficient specialization, the confused situation with the states of orders, and other factors did not lead to the inevitability of central government reform and the liquidation of the command system.

Chapter 2. The structure of the order

An important feature of almost all the innovations of the mid-sixteenth century was the pure practicality of government measures, the weakness of their ideological justification and the imperfection or lack of a legislative basis. The orders did not have a regulation that would determine the structure of new institutions and regulate their activities.

A strict bureaucratic style is characteristic of the work of orders: strict obedience (vertical) and following instructions and instructions (horizontal). The officers in the orders and the princely administration formed the backbone of the emerging nobility.

The entire command system was based on the assumption of the personal participation of the king in government. Order judges and clerks are only the clerks of the king. Over time, with the growth of the state, the multiplication and complication of affairs, the personal participation of the king in affairs becomes more difficult, until it becomes in many ways a fiction.

The Moscow tsars did not have permanent monitoring institutions; they usually counted on private incrimination, complaints of the injured and offended, than on detective and counting orders. Audits were rare. The internal control in the orders was not provided for by certain rules and depended entirely on the prudence and official diligence of the judges and clerks.

An important means of control over the clerks were petitions of the population. No one was restricted in the right to personally petition the Tsar with a petition asking for some kind of mercy, complaining of any court verdict or any action of the clerks, offenders in general.

The personnel of the orders was very diverse. The order was headed by the chief, appointed from among the boyars, devious, duma nobles and clerks. Depending on the activity of the order, the chiefs could be: a judge, a treasurer, a printer, a butler, etc. The administration of clerical work was assigned to the clerks. Technical and clerical work was carried out by the clerk.

The clerks, the first clerks, having arisen within the borders of the sovereign's court and for the purposes of palace administration, gradually penetrate all the most important branches of the court and administration. In total, in 38 orders located in the city of Moscow, in the middle of the 17th century there were up to 70 clerks. The clerks were the main businessmen of orders. In contrast to the nobles who sat down to manage the order between the military and the palace services, the clerks were specialists in business. Most of the clerks came from the clerks, who had served after several decades of bureaucratic work.

For his merits, the king granted the clerks to the Duma, and usually they continued to rule the same order. Such clerks were called dumas in the 17th century. The first members of the Duma were the leaders of the Treasury order. In the 1560s, the Duma clerks became the bit, local and ambassadorial clerks. They constantly attended meetings of the Duma and reported cases. In essence, orders became a branched office of the Duma. Thus, the Boyars' Duma was finally constituted into the highest organ of state power only with the formation of an order system.

The clerks of that time were often large statesmen. For example, the clerks of the Posolsky Prikaz are Ivan Mikhailovich Viskovaty and the Shchelkalov brothers.

The dirty work in the orders was performed by the clerk, recruited most often from the children of the clergy and townspeople. The scribes were divided into old and young. The young were used for writing, and the old, as long as those in the position of the clerk and therefore experienced and knowledgeable, for more important purposes.

The orders also included bailiffs and watchmen, and in some orders (the Ambassadors and Kazan Palace) - translators and interpreters.

The structural unit of the order was a table that specialized in its activities on a sectoral or territorial basis. Tables, in turn, were divided into uplifts.

The division of orders into tables and the number of tables was different. For example, money and judgment tables are found in most orders.

This structure was quite stable. So, throughout the XVII century, there were 4 territorial tables in the Local Order: Moscow, Pskov, Ryazan, Yaroslavsky (Vladimir), although the composition of the cities subordinate to them changed over time. Towards the end of the century, purely functional tables appeared in this order: Patrimonial affairs, etc. The structure of the Rank Order was less stable. In different years, there were territorial tables: Belgorod, Kazan, Moscow, Novgorod, Smolensky and functional: Money, Prikaznoy, Bread. The Siberian order was divided only into territorial tables: Lensky, Tobolsky and Tomsky. In many orders, even large ones, there was no division into tables.

Upgrades were mainly created on a territorial basis. They received names according to the area in which they were engaged, or were named after the names of their clerks. For example, in the Moscow table of the Rank Order there were 8 events, each of which had from 4 to 26 cities.

Usually the order was placed in a spacious hut, its decor was made up of simple wooden tables and benches. National orders were most often placed in the Kremlin. During the reign of Boris Godunov, a long two-story building was built between the Archangel Cathedral and the Spassky Gate, and each order occupied two or three rooms in it. In one of them the clerks worked, in the other - the clerk, and the third was intended to store money and documents. The petitioners were awaiting resolution of the issue in the hallway or on the street. The working day in orders lasted 12 hours or more. The fuzzy distribution of functions between orders, slowness in resolving cases due to illness, for example, judges, loss of documents due to continued work on them in the houses of judges and clerks, the lack of understanding by many order employees of the new tasks facing the central government, led to the refusal from an order management system.

Chapter 3. The main orders and their functions

Before the management of state affairs became more complicated, the management of the palace economy of the Moscow Principality became more complicated as the patrimony of the Moscow princes. Initially, the princes managed the economy personally, entrusting certain branches of it to their servants. Gradually, whole palace institutions formed around these servants: these were either separate orders, or units subordinate to them, called "yards". So around the butler there was an order of the Grand Palace, around the treasurer - the Treasury order, the falconer - the Sokolniki order, the stalker - the Stalker order, the bedclothes - the Bed order, the stables - the Stables order.

The oldest palace order is the order of the Grand Palace, which was originally in charge of only Moscow lands, since the newly acquired lands were in charge of other orders. The order of the Grand Palace was divided into several subordinate organs - the yards (namely: the state-owned yard, the full yard, the stern yard, the bakery yard the living yard). For the court of palace servants and peasants there was a Palace Judicial Order. Monasteries were led to the order of the Grand Palace until 1649, when a special order was established for them - the Monastery.

A treasury order (order of the Big Treasury) was formed from the department of the grand-ducal treasurer, who was in charge of the treasury in the broad sense of the word: money, goods, "hard junk" (metals, icons in valuable salaries, gold and silver dishes, household items, precious fabrics), " soft junk "(fur), etc.

Among the Moscow palace orders, one should also note the Konyushenny order, which was responsible for cattle breeding in general and horse breeding, as well as levying duties on the purchase and sale of cattle throughout Moscow Russia. In addition, the Konyushenny order was in charge of all the meadows, "reaping" on Moscow land and the income from them, both in kind and from the sale of hay; He was also in charge of the stable treasury (harness, etc.), all kinds of means of transportation: carriages, carriages, sledges, etc.

The various petty needs of the tsar’s everyday life were met by a number of small independent orders: Pharmaceutical, gold and silver, Bed, and others.

During the formation of the command system, the leading role belonged to military-administrative orders. At this time, the reorganization of the army took place. Its basis was noble cavalry and archers, which appeared as a result of the reform carried out by Ivan IV. The need for a streltsy army arose in connection with the further development and improvement of firearms. A special order was created to control the archers. The Streletsky order was in charge of issuing salaries to the archers, endowed them with lands and yards, judged, etc.

The formation of the new organization of the Russian state was resisted by large landowner boyars who were accustomed to appear on campaigns with their regiments and took places in battles of their choice. Tsarist legislation extended the principle of compulsory military service to all ranks of feudal lords. All landowners and fiefs were instructed to go camping with weapons and with their people. Unlike Western Europe, where military forces were formed from recruited or hired troops, the Russian army consisted of its own subjects. The persons obliged to serve included “service people in the homeland” (princes, boyars, noblemen, boyar children) and “service people by the device” (archers, city Cossacks, gunners, etc.).

One of the first came the discharge order. He was in charge of the personnel of the boyar and noble cavalry, recorded all cases of appointment to the service, moving in positions. Appointments to posts were carried out in accordance with the principle of parochialism - by virtue of generosity and nobility. The order regularly held reviews of nobles and children of the boyars, determining their readiness for military service.

The manufacture, purchase, and storage of weapons were carried out by the Armory (headed the Armory) and Pushkarsky (created with the advent of artillery during the Livonian War) orders. The latter was also in charge of the construction and maintenance of city fortifications in a significant part of the territory of the Moscow state, and was in charge of gunners and state blacksmiths.

The local order dealt with local and patrimonial affairs, handed out and selected estates, monitored their transitions and estates from one person to another and judged the plaintiffs in land affairs. The order produced descriptions of lands and censuses, considered disputes over land affairs of service people. At the end of the first third of the 17th century, the local order concentrated the writing of all local and patrimonial lands, which he had previously shared with the order of the Grand Parish and the quarters.

Under the name of quarters or chetas, there were six orders in the 17th century. The question of the origin of the couple has not been fully clarified. We can say with confidence that at the beginning of the second half of the 16th century, in connection with the abolition of feeding, part of the state was divided between 4 institutions, which were called quarters. The couple had to collect income from their cities that were intended for salaries to service people, the so-called quarters instead of canceled feedings.

The order of the Grand Parish in the 17th century was in charge of customs and shops in most cities of all the chets, as well as in Moscow. This order collected direct and indirect taxes in most of the state. There are indications that in his hands was the work of patrols and descriptions, the return to the quitrent of wasteland left over from the local distribution. An important tax was received at his cash desk in the 16th century - small Yamskoe money, which in the 17th century lost its significance.

In 1624, the Inozemsky order was created, which was in charge of the military, mainly officers employed in Russian service abroad. He gave them salaries, distributed them on shelves, resolved issues related to their residence in Russia, and cases of a judicial nature.

Since 1649, the duties of manning the regiments of the new system (Reytarsky, Dragoons, and soldiers) were assigned to the Reytarsky order.

There was also a Cossack order, which was in charge of the Cossack troops. The order judged them for crimes and misconduct in the service, etc.

Special territorial orders appeared at that time, in charge of the affairs of those territories that were annexed to Russia or mastered. These included the Kazan and Siberian orders. In the future, the Little Russian order, which was in charge of the affairs of Ukraine, began to function.

During the period of estate-representative monarchy, a semblance of a central police organ arises. At first, the Boyar Duma commission on robbery was acting, then the Robbery order is created. He worked out instructions for local authorities on combating ordinary crimes, and appointed local officials on the spot. In 1682, it was transformed into a detective order. Providing order in Moscow was in charge of the Zemsky order.

The nobles and the boyar children under Ivan IV received certain privileges - they could appeal to the court of the king himself. In this regard, a special petition was formed. This order had a dual purpose. Firstly, the clerks and the clerk of all orders were led by the court and the government in it, that is, he was responsible for all claims of private individuals against orders. Secondly, it was, as it were, an office for petitions submitted to the king.

At the end of the XVII century. a system of judicial orders is being created (Moscow, Vladimirsky, Dmitrovsky, Kazan, etc.), which performed the functions of the highest judicial bodies. Subsequently, these orders, as well as the petition, merged into a single court order.

In the activities of the Russian state, the Ambassadorial Order, which was in charge of various foreign policy issues, was of great importance. Before it arose, many bodies dealt with foreign policy issues of the Russian state. The lack of a single center for embassy affairs created inconvenience. The direct participation of the Boyar Duma in all foreign policy issues was inappropriate. A limited number of persons should have been involved in these cases in order to avoid the disclosure of state secrets. The king believed that all the main issues of foreign policy (especially operational) should be decided personally by him. The head of the Ambassadorial order and a small number of clerks were called upon to help in this.

The main duties of the Ambassadorial order were to negotiate with representatives of foreign states. This function was directly performed by the head of the order. The order worked out the most important documents that substantiated the position of the Russian state on various foreign policy issues. In addition, he resolved border conflicts, engaged in the exchange of prisoners, etc. The appearance of the Ambassadorial order had an impact on the decline in the role of the Boyar Duma in resolving foreign policy issues. The tsar rarely consulted with her on these issues, relying mainly on the opinion of the Ambassadorial order. The ambassadorial order dealt with foreign trade affairs and tried foreigners in trade and other matters. In his own hands was the matter of the redemption of prisoners.

In the second half of the XVI century. a special central institution in charge of slave affairs is being created. Until now, local governments and the Treasury Order, which performed many other functions at the same time, were engaged in this. Now, in connection with the development of bonded servility, a need arises for a special body. The main duty of the Serf order was to register the enslaving records in special books. In addition, he considered claims in cases of runaway slaves, for which registration of servile letters in the order was of significant importance.

The stone order in many cities controlled masons, was engaged in the construction of fortresses, churches, palaces, etc.

An important place in the order system was occupied by Pechatny, who kept the sovereigns of the press and collected printing duties from all documents that came from all orders, with the exception of the order of the Grand Palace, which had independence and itself took duties from its letters.

Government communications with cities were supported by one of the most ancient orders - Yamskaya. He built pit settlements, watched them, tried coachmen, and in the 17th century he began to collect one of the most difficult direct taxes - big pit money. The latter gave him the importance of an important financial order.

Under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, a Secret Order was created, which can be regarded as a symptom of the decline of the order system. The Secret Affairs Order is the personal office of the king. He had the right to demand reporting from any order or submission to verify individual cases and documents.

Another control body under Alexei Mikhailovich was the Counting Order. By special orders of the king, clerks and clerk of other orders were required to provide him with receipts and account books to verify the legality and correctness of financial transactions.

Conclusion

order management Moscow principality

The system of orders of the XVI - XVII centuries is a unique and distinctive phenomenon in the history of Russian statehood. The orders by which Moscow sovereigns ruled their patrimony for more than two centuries constitute an essential aspect of the Moscow state. They arose even under the Moscow Grand Dukes, developed with the power of the tsars and were replaced by other institutions when the Moscow state became the Russian Empire.

The execution of the command system allowed centralizing the administration of the country.

A feature of many orders was that, in addition to the main function of the central government, they controlled certain territories and were simultaneously administrative-police, financial and judicial authorities for their population.

Orders had their own internal structure, a clear division of posts.

The unification of the Russian lands took place in an environment of constant struggle against an external threat. Therefore, it is no coincidence that many of the first orders are, to one degree or another, related to military affairs.

Over time, the number of orders grew. Along with the practicality of the order system, its shortcomings also begin to appear, for example, the disorder and complexity of the system. In the 17th century, relations between orders were not regulated by any specific law.

It is safe to say that for its time, the order system was very effective. The successes made by the Moscow state from the end of the 15th century until the destruction of orders are very significant, and there is no reason to say that they were achieved despite the command system, and not with its help. Be that as it may, the order system lasted for more than two centuries, i.e. longer than the collegiate system of Peter the Great, which replaced him.

List of references:

Belkovets L.P., Belkovets V.V. History of the state and law of Russia. Novosibirsk 2000

Veselovsky S. B. The Moscow State: XV - XVII centuries. From the scientific heritage. M. 2008

History of the domestic state and law / Under. ed. O. I. Chistyakova. Part 1., M. 2003

History of Russian statehood / Comp. L. A. Kokhanova, T. S. Alekseeva. M. 2007

Rogozhin N. M. Ambassadorial order: Cradle of Russian diplomacy. M. 2003

Senin A. S. History of Russian statehood. M. 2003

Skrynnikov R.G. Russian History. IX - XVII centuries M. 1997

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Order in Moscow.

Painting by Yanov A.S. 1880s.

Serpukhov Art History Museum.

The authorities in Russia have undergone great changes over the centuries. At first it was the prince’s squad, then the Boyar Duma appeared. orders. What was in charge of the orders, what were the orders, who introduced them in Russia? We will answer these questions.

Orders

Orders   - These are government bodies in Russia. An order system of power was established by Ivan the Terrible on central government reform in 155th year. However, orders appeared much earlier.

From the history of the name

Where did this name come from? The explanation is very simple: the tsar “ordered” the boyar to be in charge of a particular area of \u200b\u200bsociety or a specific area of \u200b\u200bthe country. This is where the name came from - orders.

From the history of orders

The first orders appeared under Ivan 3, it was around 1512. Then there were the following orders: bit. Breech, stables, bedding, serfs, breadcrumbs and orders of the Big Court (he was in charge of the lands of the Prince of Moscow himself). Separate orders were in charge of affairs in the annexed territories, as well as in the state itself.

Vasily 3 - the father of Ivan the Terrible - introduced new posts, so special orders were created for them. These are: hunter, gunsmith, kravch. This happened in 1509, 1511 and 1514, respectively.

Finally, under Ivan the Terrible in Sudebnik, adopted in 1550, the command system was finally formed. All subsequent kings added new orders, merged several, or abolished some altogether.

The orders replaced by the collegiums were Peter the Great, however, some orders remained and existed for quite some time. For example, in 1730 the Siberian order was restored (until 1755). The orders completely disappeared during the reign of Catherine II in 1775, but even some institutions continued to be called orders (for example, the Order of Public Charity), however, their terms of reference were different.

Thus, orders existed in Russia for quite some time.

Other names of orders:

chambers, huts, palaces, huts, courtyards, thirds, quarters.

These names, although synonyms, however, have some differences.

Huts - authorities with less authority than orders.

Yards and palaces were in charge only of economic affairs.

The history of the names “third” and “quarter” is interesting. Under Ivan III, the state was divided into three parts. So, thirds are the authorities in charge of affairs in each of these three parts. The same thing happened with the word “quarter”. Only this was under Ivan IV - the country was divided into 4 parts.

Orders in Russia

Such is not a complete list of orders that existed in Russia.

Composition of orders

At the head of the order was roundaboutappointed by the king from the boyars.

One part of the employees was involved in decision making - judges.

Others were writing this clerks and clerk, Oh, there is a clerk- this is the head of the office of the order, the clerk- his assistant, deputy.

Material prepared by: Melnikova Vera Aleksandrovna

(info from Orlov’s textbook)

In January 1547, Ivan IV, having reached adulthood, officially married the kingdom. The rite of acceptance of the royal title took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. From the hands of Moscow Metropolitan Makarii, who developed the wedding ceremony for the kingdom, Ivan IV accepted the cap of Monomakh and other signs of imperial authority.

From now on, the Grand Duke of Moscow began to be called the king.During the period when a centralized state took shape, as well as during interregnum and internal strife, the role of the legislative and advisory body under the Grand Duke, and later under the tsar, was played by the Boyar Duma.

During the reign of Ivan IV, the composition of the Boyar Duma was almost threefold expanded in order to weaken the role of the old boyar aristocracy in it. The elevation of the authority of the tsarist government, the strengthening of the clergy and the formation of a powerful local land tenure led to the emergence of a new state body - Zemsky Cathedral.   Zemsky Sobors convened irregularly and dealt with the most important government affairs, primarily issues of foreign policy and finance.

In the period of interregnum at the Zemsky Sobor, new kings were elected. According to experts, more than 50 Zemsky Cathedrals were held. The last Zemsky cathedrals met in Russia in the 80s of the XVII century. They included the Boyar Duma, the Consecrated Cathedral - representatives of the higher clergy.

Representatives of the nobility and the top of the posad also attended the meetings of the Zemsky Sobor. The first Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1549. He decided to draw up a new Code of Law (approved in 1550) and drew up a reform program in the mid-16th century. Even before the mid-16th century reforms. certain branches of state administration, as well as the management of certain territories, began to be entrusted (“ordered,” as they said then) to the boyars. So the first orders appeared - institutions,   They were in charge of branches of government or certain regions of the country.

In the middle of the XVI century. there were already two dozen orders. Military affairs were led by the Rank Order (in charge of the local army), Pushkarsky (in charge of artillery), Streletsky (in charge of archers), the Armory (Arsenal).

Foreign affairs were controlled by the Ambassadorial order, finances - by order of the Big Parish, state lands distributed to nobles - Local order, by serfs - Serf order. There were orders in charge of certain territories, for example, the order of the Siberian Palace ruled Siberia, the order of the Kazan Palace - annexed Kazan Khanate. The order was headed by a boyar or clerk - a major state official.

Orders were in charge of administration, tax collection and court. With the increasing complexity of public administration tasks, the number of orders grew. By the time of the Petrine reforms in the early XVIII century. there were about 50 of them. The execution of the command system made it possible to centralize the administration of the country. A unified local management system began to take shape. Earlier there, tax collection was entrusted to the boyars-feeding men, they were the actual rulers of individual lands.

Orders as authorities in Russia

All personal funds collected in excess of the necessary taxes to the treasury, i.e. they were “fed” by land administration. In 1556, feeding was canceled.   At the local level, the administration (investigation and court on especially important state affairs) was transferred to the hands of labial elders (lip - district), elected from local noblemen, zemstvo elders - from among the wealthy strata of the black-cut population where there was no noble land ownership, and city clerks or favorite goals - in cities.

Thus, in the middle of the XVI century. there was a government apparatus in the form estate-representative monarchy.Judicial Code 1550   The general tendency towards centralization of the country and the state apparatus necessitated the publication of a new code of laws - the Code of Laws. Based on the Code of Laws of Ivan III, the drafters of the new Code of Law introduced changes related to the strengthening of central authority.

It confirmed the right of the peasants to move on St. George's Day and the fee for the "elderly" was increased. The feudal lord was now responsible for the crimes of the peasants, which strengthened their personal dependence on the master. For the first time, punishment was introduced for bribery of public servants. Even under Elena Glinskaya, a monetary reform was launched, according to which the Moscow ruble became the main monetary unit of the country. The right to collect trade duties passed into the hands of the state. The country's population was required to bear tax -   complex of natural and monetary duties.

In the middle of the XVI century. a single taxation unit was established for the entire state - big plow.   Depending on the fertility of the soil, as well as the social status of the owner of the land, the plow was 400-600 hectares of land. Military Reform 1549-1552Much has been done to strengthen the country's armed forces. The core of the army was the nobility.

Near Moscow was planted on the ground The Chosen Thousand-   1070 provincial noblemen, who, according to the plan of the king, were to become his support. It was first compiled "Code of Service."   The patrimonial or landowner could begin the service from the age of 15 and pass it by inheritance.

With 150 acres of land, both the boyar and the nobleman had to exhibit one warrior and appear at the shows "horse, crowded and armed." A great step forward in the organization of the military forces of Russia was the creation in 1550 of a permanent archery army. At first, archers were three thousand people. In addition, foreigners began to be attracted to the army, the number of which was insignificant.

Artillery was reinforced. To carry out the border service, the Cossacks were involved. The boyars and nobles who made up the militia were called "service people in the homeland", i.e.

by origin. Another group consisted of “service people by instrument” (ie, by recruitment). In addition to the archers, the gunners (gunners), the city guard entered there, the Cossacks were close to them. The rear work (convoy, construction of fortifications) was carried out by the "staff" - a militia from among black-mowed, monastery peasants and posad people. For the duration of military campaigns, localism was limited.

In the middle of the XVI century. an official directory was compiled - "Sovereign Genealogist", which streamlined local disputes. Stoglavy Cathedral. In 1551, at the initiative of the sovereign and the metropolitan, the Council of the Russian Church was convened, called Stoglavy, as its decisions were formulated in one hundred chapters. The decisions of the church hierarchs reflected the changes associated with the centralization of the state. The Council approved the adoption of the Judicial Code of 1550.

and the reforms of Ivan IV. Among the local saints revered in individual Russian lands, a general Russian list was compiled. Ritualization was streamlined and unified throughout the country. Even art was subject to regulation: it was prescribed to create new works, following the approved patterns.

It was decided to leave in the hands of the church all the lands acquired by her before the Stoglavy Cathedral. In the future, churchmen could buy land and receive it as a gift only with royal permission. Thus, in the matter of monastic land tenure, the line won’t restrict it and control by the tsar. Reforms of the 50s of the 16th century contributed to the strengthening of the Russian centralized multinational state.

They strengthened the power of the king, led to the reorganization of local and central government, strengthened the military power of the country, but were accompanied by a new pressure on the Russian peasantry, and led to its further enslavement. At the same time, the reforms of the middle of the XVI century. created the prerequisites for solving the foreign policy challenges facing Russia.

FAVORITES: Around 1549, a council of people close to him formed around Ivan IV, called the Elected Council.

So named him in the Polish manner Kurbsky in one of his works. The composition of the Chosen One is very clear. It was headed by A.F. Adashev, who came from a rich, but not very noble family. Representatives of various strata of the ruling class participated in the work of the Chosen One. Princes D. Kurlyatev, A Kurbsky, M. Vorotynsky, Moscow Metropolitan Makarii and priest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin (home church of Moscow tsars), confessor of Tsar Sylvester, clerk of the Ambassadorial order I.

Whiskey. The composition of the Chosen One seemed to reflect a compromise between the various layers of the ruling class. The elected Council lasted until 1560, it carried out the transformations, called reforms of the middle of the XVI century. The elected Council was not an official state institution, but for 13 years ruled on behalf of the tsar, striving to carry out thorough structural reforms aimed at the formation of an estate-representative monarchy.

The socio-economic and political crisis of Moscow society in the second half of the ХУ1в. (Oprichnina and its consequences)

Oprichnina (foreign policy) - a period in the history of Russia (from 1565 to 1572), designated by state terror and the system of emergency measures. Also, the “oprichnina” was called the part of the state, with special management, allocated for the maintenance of the royal court and the oprichniks (“Sovereign oprichnina”). Oprichniki were people who made up the secret police of Ivan the Terrible and directly carried out repression.

The word "oprichnina" comes from the old Russian "to shout", which means "special", "except"

(from Orlov’s textbook 83 pp.)

Oprichnina. Ivan IV, fighting the rebellions and betrayals of the noble nobility, saw in them the main reason for the failures of his policy. He firmly stood on the position of the need for a strong autocratic power, the main obstacle to the establishment of which, in his opinion, were the boyar-princely opposition and boyar privileges.

The question was what methods will be used to fight. The severity of the moment and the general underdevelopment of the forms of the state apparatus, as well as the peculiarities of the character of the tsar, who, apparently, was a very unbalanced person, led to the establishment of the oprichnina. Ivan IV dealt with the remnants of fragmentation by purely medieval means. In January 1565, from the Tsar’s residence in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, through the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the tsar left for the Alexandrovskaya Sloboda (now the city of Alexandrov, Vladimir Region).

From there he turned to the column with two messages. In the first, sent to the clergy and the Boyar Duma, Ivan IV announced the renunciation of power because of the treason of the boyars and asked him to give him a special destiny - oprichnina (except for the word “shout”).

So before they called the inheritance that stood out to the widow during the division of her husband’s property). In the second message addressed to the pillars of the posad people, the tsar informed of the decision and added that he had no complaints against the townspeople.

It was a well-designed political maneuver. Using the faith of the people in the tsar, Ivan the Terrible expected that he would be called to return to the throne. When this happened, the tsar dictated his conditions: the right of unlimited autocratic power and the establishment of a guardianship.

The country was divided into two parts: the oprichnina and the zemstvo. In the oprichnina 92, Ivan IV included the most important lands. It included Pomeranian cities, cities with large areas and strategically important, as well as the most economically developed areas of the country. On these lands settled the nobles who were part of the oprichnina army. Its composition was initially determined to be a thousand people. This army was supposed to contain the population of the zemshchina.

In the oprichnina, in parallel with the zemstvo, an own system of governing bodies has developed. Ostrichniks wore black clothes. Dog heads and brooms were attached to their saddles, symbolizing the dog’s allegiance to the Tsar’s guardsmen and their readiness to sweep treason out of the country. In an effort to destroy the separatism of the feudal nobility, Ivan IV did not stop at all cruelties.

The oprichnine terror, executions, and links began. In Tver, Malyuta Skuratov was strangled by Moscow Metropolitan Philip (Fedor Kolychev), who condemned the oprichnina lawlessness. Prince Vladimir Staripky, a cousin of the tsar who claimed the throne, his wife and daughter, was poisoned in Moscow. His mother, Princess Yevdokia Staripkaya, was killed in the Goritsky monastery on White Lake.

The center and the north-west of Russian lands, where the boyars were especially strong, were subjected to severe defeat. In December 1569, Ivan undertook a campaign against Novgorod, whose inhabitants allegedly wanted to go under the rule of Lithuania. On the way, Klin, Tver, Torzhok underwent destruction. Particularly cruel executions (about 200 people) took place in Moscow on June 25, 1570. In Novgorod itself, the pogrom lasted six weeks. Severe deaths killed thousands of its inhabitants, and houses and churches were looted.

However, an attempt by brute force (executions and repressions) to resolve the contradictions in the country could only give a temporary effect. It did not finally destroy the boyar-princely land ownership, although it greatly weakened its power; the political role of the boyar aristocracy was undermined.

The wild arbitrariness and death of many innocent people who became victims of oprichnina terror still causes horror and shudder. The Oprichnina aggravated the contradictions within the country, worsened the situation of the peasantry and contributed to its enslavement in many ways. In 1571, the oprichnina army was unable to repel the raid of the Crimean Tatars in Moscow, which burned the Moscow Posad, which revealed the inability of the oprichnina army to successfully fight external enemies.

True, in the next 1572, not far from Podolsk (the village of Molody), 50 km from Moscow, the Krymchaks suffered a crushing defeat from 93 Russian troops, led by an experienced commander M.I. Vorotynsky. However, the king abolished the oprichnina, which in 1572

was transformed into "Sovereign's Court". Rad of historians believes that structural transformations of the type of reforms of the Elected Council could become an alternative to the oprichnina. This would allow, according to experts who share this point of view, instead of the unlimited autocracy of Ivan IV, to have an estate-representative monarchy with a “human face”. The reign of Ivan the Terrible in many respects predetermined the course of the further history of our country - the “bail” of the 70-80s of the 16th century, the establishment of serfdom on a state scale and that complex knot of contradictions of the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, which contemporaries called “unrest”.

Results of the oprichnina:

Destruction of members of the boyar Duma:

34 boyar - execution \u003d\u003e 15 - as a monk \u003d\u003e 3

9 prisoners - execution \u003d\u003e 4

2) Destroyed class owners

3) Undermined by P.S.

Empty peasant households: \u003d\u003e in Mosk. county - 75%; \u003d\u003e in the Novgorod region - 92%; \u003d\u003e in Russia -40%

4) Craft and trade centers were destroyed (ambassadors in Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov)

5) Strengthening serfdom. 1565g. - 1,500 estates and estates were distributed

6) Central areas (arable land) from 15 dess. up to 4 dess.

7) Establishment of relations of citizenship. A fragment of the mechanism of moral and legal regulation of public relations

8) The manning and organization of troops has been violated.

5-6 thousand guardsmen<= выселить 7,5 — 9 тыс дворян =>   \u003d 1/3 troops

9) Victims according to the synodic of Ivan IV about 22 thousand

10) Roughening morals and increasing the severity of legislation

Consequences of the Oprichnina:

Political: Strengthening the regime of personal power, establishing relations of citizenship, eliminating vestiges of the specific system, violation of the troop acquisition system

Socio-economic: reducing the level of economic development, continuing the process of state enslavement of peasants, reducing the number of working people

The gravest economic crisis was called the "bail of the 70-80s of the XVI century."

The most economically developed center (Moscow) and the north-west (Novgorod and Pskov) of the country were launched. Part of the population fled, another died during the oprichnina and the Livonian War. More than 50% of the arable land remained uncultivated.

Tax oppression has risen sharply, prices have increased 4 times. In the years 1570-1571. A plague epidemic swept across the country. The peasant economy lost stability, the country began hunger. The central government took the path of securing the main producer — the peasant — to the land of the feudal landowners.

At the end of the XVI century. in Russia, a system of serfdom was actually established on a state scale. Oprichnina had grave consequences for the country, weakened it politically and economically, however, and the power of the boyars was also undermined. Peasants fled to the outskirts. To stop them, in 1581 "reserved summers" were introduced.

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Orders   - central government in the XVI - early XVIII centuries. The name comes from the term “order” - in the meaning of “special assignment”. The creation of orders and the folding of the command system, which began at the end of the 15th – beginning of the 16th centuries, marked the further centralization of the united Russian state, which needed permanent governing bodies in various spheres of life.

As a rule, orders combined administrative, financial, and judicial functions, with the latter often prevailing. During the XVI century. orders were created: the Grand Palace (in charge of the palace economy, etc.), Zemsky (in charge of the administration of Moscow), Kazenny (in charge of the royal clothing treasury; connected to the order of the Grand Palace), Razryadny, Streletsky and Pomestny (in charge of organizing the troops and their supply), The robber (was in charge of the control of criminal cases), the Ambassadorial (was in charge of international affairs), etc.

orders. Often, similar functions were split between different orders. So, in the XVII century. orders were created: Cossack, Inozemsky, Reitarsky, Urban affairs, engaged in military affairs. Along with national orders, there were orders with regional competence (order of the Kazan Palace, Siberian order, Novgorod quarter, Little Russian order, etc.)

With the complication and expansion of the functions of the autocratic state, more and more new orders were established.

In the middle of the XVII century. special orders were created - Secret Affairs and Accounts, which were entrusted with the task of monitoring the activities of all orders. Persons led by orders in the XVII century. got the name of the judges.

The largest orders were led by judges who had the rank of nobleman or deceit.

Order system in Russia

A large role in the activities of the orders was played by the clerks who carried out direct paperwork. At the beginning of the XVIII century. orders replaced by collegiums. In addition to the central institutions, orders also called some local palace administration bodies - the Novgorod and Pskov palace orders, subordinate to the order of the Big Treasury.

In the XVI - XVII centuries. orders also called streltsy regiments.

Order (order), the procedure for its return and implementation

39. An order is an order of a commander (chief) addressed to subordinates and requiring the mandatory performance of certain actions, compliance with certain rules or establishing any order or position.

An order may be given in writing, orally or by technical means of communication to one or a group of military personnel. The written order is the main administrative service document (normative act) of the military command, issued on a one-man basis by the commander of a military unit.

Oral orders have the right to give subordinates to all commanders (chiefs).

Discussion (criticism) of the order is unacceptable, and failure to fulfill the order of the commander (chief), given in the prescribed manner, is a crime against military service.

An order is a form of communicating tasks by a commander (chief) to subordinates on private issues. The order is given in writing or orally. The written order is an administrative document issued by the chief of staff (deputy commander of the military unit) on behalf of the commander of the military unit, assistant garrison chief for organizing the garrison service (military commandant of the garrison) on behalf of the head of the garrison.

Decrees of the President of the Russian Federation of March 25, 2015 N 161, of May 16, 2017 N 210)

(see text in previous)

41. The order (order) must comply with federal laws, military regulations and orders of higher commanders (commanders). When giving an order (order), the commander (chief) must not allow abuse of official powers or their excess.

Commanders (commanders) are prohibited from giving orders (orders) that are not related to the performance of military duties or aimed at violating the laws of the Russian Federation.

The establishment of orders in Russia

Commanders (commanders) who have issued such orders (orders) are held liable in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.

The order is formulated clearly, concisely and clearly without the use of formulations that allow different interpretations.

42. The commander (chief), before issuing an order, is obliged to comprehensively assess the situation and provide measures to ensure its implementation.

Orders are given in order of subordination.

If absolutely necessary, the senior boss may issue an order to his subordinate, bypassing his immediate boss. In this case, he reports this to the immediate superior of the subordinate or the subordinate himself reports on the receipt of the order to his immediate superior.

The order of the commander (chief) must be carried out implicitly, accurately and on time. The serviceman, having received the order, answers: “Yes” - and then carries it out.

If necessary, to verify the correct understanding of the order given to them, the commander (chief) may demand a repeat thereof, and a soldier who has received an order may ask the commander (chief) to repeat it.

Having executed the order, a soldier who disagrees with the order may appeal it.

The soldier is obliged to report on the implementation of the order received to the chief who issued the order and his immediate superior.

A subordinate who has not complied with the order of the commander (chief), given in the prescribed manner, is prosecuted on the grounds stipulated by the legislation of the Russian Federation.

The commander (chief) is responsible for the issued order (order) and its consequences, for the compliance of the contents of the order (order) with the requirements of Article 41 of this Charter and for the failure to take measures to ensure its implementation.

Only the commander (chief) who has given it, or a superior direct chief, has the right to cancel the order (order).

If the serviceman executing the order receives from the senior commander (chief) a new order that will prevent the first one from fulfilling, he reports this to the chief who issued the new order and, if a new order is confirmed, executes it.

The boss who issued the new order informs the boss who issued the first order.

A soldier, in order to successfully complete the task assigned to him, is obliged to take reasonable initiative.

The formation of a single Russian state is usually attributed to the end of the 15th century and associated with the name of Ivan III, who in 1485 adopted the official title of "Grand Duke of All Russia." The creation of a single state required the formation of the corresponding apparatus of state administration, necessary for regulating the economic and political life of the state, and qualitative changes in the system of state administration. The first mention of orders is found in sources from the end of the 15th century, however, the process of forming the proper command system of administration was lengthy.

Initially, at the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries, the national governing bodies were the Palace and the Treasury, which grew out of the palace and patrimonial management system. The palace controlled the lands of the Grand Duke, the Treasury was in charge of finances, the state seal and archives. In their bowels, special institutions gradually appear - “paths”, responsible for individual groups of affairs and headed by good boyars. Later they began to be called orders. At the beginning of the 16th century, at least 10 orders were functioning. Their activities spread throughout the state. From the end of the 15th century, “regional” palaces — Tverskaya, Novgorodsky, Ryazansky, and others — were created to manage the lands annexed to Moscow. The process of forming the command system of state administration lasted several decades and took up the entire first half of the 16th century.

Most of the orders grew out of the Palace and the Treasury due to the expansion of their functions. They were created as needed, often without an exact definition of competence, organization and activity. The formation of the order as a state institution went through several stages. Initially, the implementation of certain functions of a unified Russian state was entrusted to the boyars, as well as to the unreborn, but competent officials - clerks. Gradually, these irregular, one-time assignments, that is, orders in the literal sense of the word, acquired a permanent character, turning into "paths" - peculiar branches of management. The boyars who stood at the head of the "paths" were called good. With the expansion of the range of tasks, the worthy boyars were given "for writing" officials - clerks and clerk. So the office appeared - "huts." At the last stage, by the middle of the 16th century, constantly operating state bodies appeared, having their own competence, staff, a “hut” (office), and independent structural units. They were assigned the name of orders.

In the second half of the sixteenth century, almost all branches of government became order-bearing.

Throughout the late 15th - 17th centuries, the command system of administration was an important component of the state mechanism. The definition of “command and control” focuses on the specific historical features of the central government of the late 15th – 17th centuries. They are important in comparison with other central management systems, for example, from an earlier or later period in the history of Russia. In this case, the distinctive features of the order management will primarily characterize the features of the state mechanism of the late XV - XVII centuries.

The appearance of the first orders was caused by the orders of the monarch Ivan III. This applies equally to the further evolution of the command system of administration. The main reason for the emergence of new government bodies and the transformation of the old management system was the change in the conditions of public and state life that occurred in the last quarter of the 15th century in connection with the creation of a single Russian state. The need for effective management entailed changes in the structure of government. These changes were not the result of a deliberate policy to reform the state mechanism. New departments arose as necessary and in the forms most appropriate in specific historical conditions. In the conditions of particularism as a characteristic feature of medieval law, this did not necessarily mean the unification of the organs and principles of governance. This circumstance explains the relatively long process of forming orders as a central management system for more than half a century: from the appearance of the first orders at the end of the 15th century to the administrative transformations of the 1950s.

However, during this period management did not constitute a coherent system and was built on a system of “instructions” - a circle of affairs was transferred to the jurisdiction of a certain person according to the degree of closeness and trust of the Grand Duke. In some cases, one agency managed several departments. On the other hand, often in the management of one department at the same time several different institutions participated, which led to a confusion of their functions and confusion.

The peculiarities of orders as public authorities of the XVI-XVII centuries consisted in the fact that already at that time they functioned in accordance with the following bureaucratic principles: 1) officials took the oath and had to personally perform duties; 2) there was an order of promotion; 3) training was conducted for clerks of orders; 4) there was a single procedure for the preparation and consideration of cases; 5) in the orders there was a developed paperwork; 6) there was a specialization of structural units of the order and individual officials to perform certain functions; 7) for the performance of official duties, partial state support was provided. Many of these principles laid the foundation for the activities of orders already in the 16th century, but they acquired the greatest importance only in the 17th century, in the era of the flourishing of command and control.