Who is Alexander Pavlovich. Alexander I - biography, information, personal life. Alexander I: biography

- Russian Emperor 1801-1825, son of Emperor Pavel Petrovich and Empress Maria Feodorovna. Born December 12, 1777, ascended the throne March 12, 1801. Died in Taganrog November 19, 1825

Childhood of Alexander I

Catherine the Great did not love her son Pavel Petrovich, but she took care of the upbringing of her grandson, Alexander, whom she early deprived of maternal care for these purposes. Catherine, unusually talented in the matter of education, was included in all his little things, trying to put him on the height of the then pedagogical requirements. She wrote "grandmother's alphabet" with anecdotes of a didactic nature and gave the teacher of the Grand Dukes Alexander and his brother Konstantin, Count (later Prince) N. I. Saltykov, special instructions, "regarding health and maintaining it; regarding the continuation and reinforcement of the inclination towards good, regarding virtue , courtesy and knowledge". These instructions were built on the principles of abstract liberalism and imbued with the fashionable pedagogical inventions of "Emile" Rousseau. Saltykov, an ordinary man, was chosen to serve as a front for Catherine, who wished, without annoying her son Pavel, to lead the upbringing of Alexander personally. Other mentors of Alexander I in childhood were the Swiss Laharpe (who first taught the brother of the favorite of Catherine II, Lansky). An admirer of republican ideas and political freedom, La Harpe was in charge of Alexander's intellectual education, read with him Demosthenes and Mably, Tacitus and Gibbon, Locke and Rousseau; he earned the respect of his student. La Harpe was assisted by the professor of physics Kraft, the famous botanist Pallas, and the mathematician Masson. The Russian language was taught to Alexander by the sentimental writer M.N. Muravyov, and the law of God was taught by Archpriest A.A. liberal tendencies of Catherine.

Disadvantages of education of Alexander I

The upbringing that Alexander I received did not have a strong religious and national foundation; it did not develop personal initiative in him, keeping him away from contact with Russian reality. On the other hand, it was too abstract for a young man of 10-14 years old. Such an upbringing instilled in Alexander humane feelings and a penchant for abstract liberalism, but gave little concrete, and, consequently, was almost devoid of practical significance. The results of this upbringing were clearly reflected in the character of Alexander all his life: impressionability, humanity, attractive treatment, but also a penchant for abstraction, a weak ability to bring "bright dreams" to life. In addition, education was interrupted in view of the early marriage of the Grand Duke (16 years old) to the 14-year-old Princess Louise of Baden, who received the Orthodox name of Elizabeth Alekseevna.

The ambiguity of Alexander's position between father and grandmother

Catherine, who did not love her son, Paul, thought of eliminating him from the throne and passing the throne to Alexander after herself. That is why she hastened to marry him at a very young age. Growing up Alexander was in a rather difficult situation. Relations between his parents and his grandmother were extremely strained. Around Pavel and Maria Feodorovna, a special court was grouped, as it were, separate from Catherine's. Surrounded by Alexander's parents, they did not approve of Catherine II's excessive free-thinking and favoritism. Often, present in the morning at parades and exercises in his father's Gatchina, in a clumsy uniform, Alexander in the evening visited an exquisite society that gathered in Catherine's Hermitage. The need to maneuver between the grandmother and the parents who were at war with her taught the Grand Duke to secrecy, and the discrepancy between the liberal theories inspired by his teachers and Russian reality instilled in him distrust of people and disappointment. All this from a young age developed secrecy and hypocrisy in Alexander. He was disgusted by court life and dreamed of renouncing his rights to the throne in order to lead the life of a private man on the Rhine. These plans (in the spirit of the then Western romantics) were shared by his wife, a German, Elizaveta Alekseevna. They strengthened in Alexander the tendency to rush about with far from reality, sublime chimeras. Even then, having struck up a close friendship with the young aristocrats Czartorysky, Stroganov, Novosiltsev and Kochubey, Alexander informed them of his desire to go to privacy. But friends urged him not to lay down the royal burden. Under their influence, Alexander decided to first give the country political freedom and only then give up power.

Alexander during the reign of Paul, his attitude to the conspiracy against his father

The changes that took place in the Russian order after the death of Catherine II and the accession to the throne of Paul were very painful for Alexander. In letters to friends, he resented his father's recklessness, tyranny and favoritism. Pavel appointed Alexander the chief military governor of St. Petersburg, and the main mass of Pavlovian punitive measures went directly through him. Not particularly trusting his son, Paul forced him to personally sign orders for cruel punishments for innocent people. In this service, Alexander became close to the intelligent and strong-willed cynic, Count Palen, who soon became the soul of the conspiracy against Paul.

The conspirators dragged Alexander into the conspiracy, so that in case of his failure, the participation of the heir to the throne would ensure their impunity. They convinced the Grand Duke that their goal was only to force Paul to abdicate and then establish a regency headed by Alexander himself. Alexander agreed to the coup, taking an oath from Palen that Paul's life would remain inviolable. But Paul was killed, and this tragic denouement plunged Alexander into despair. Involuntary participation in the murder of his father greatly contributed to the development in him of a mystical, almost painful mood towards the end of his reign.

Accession of Alexander I to the throne

Dreamy Alexander from his youth showed humanity and meekness in dealing with his subordinates. They so seduced everyone that, according to Speransky, even a person with a stone heart could not resist such treatment. Therefore, the society with great joy welcomed the accession of Alexander I to the throne (March 12, 1801). But the young king faced difficult political and administrative tasks. Alexander was inexperienced in state affairs, poorly informed about the situation in Russia and had few people on whom he could rely. The former Catherine's nobles were already old or dispersed by Paul. Clever Palen and Panin, Alexander did not trust because of their gloomy role in the conspiracy against Paul. Of the young friends of Alexander I, only Stroganov was in Russia. Czartoryski, Novosiltsev and Kochubey were urgently summoned from abroad, but they could not arrive quickly.

The international position of Russia at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I

Against his own will, Alexander left in the service of Palen and Panin, who, however, personally did not participate in the murder of Paul. Palen, the most knowledgeable of the then leaders, at first acquired great influence. The international position of the country at that moment was not easy. Emperor Paul, outraged by the selfish actions of the British during a joint landing with the Russians in Holland (1799), left the coalition with Britain against France before his death and was preparing to enter into an alliance with Bonaparte. With this, he called the British on a naval expedition against Russia and Denmark. A week after Pavel's death, Nelson bombarded Copenhagen, destroyed the entire Danish fleet and prepared to bombard Kronstadt and Petersburg. However, the accession of Alexander I in Russia somewhat reassured the British. London government and former ambassador Whitworth were involved in a conspiracy against Paul, with the aim of keeping Russia from an alliance with France. After negotiations between the British and Palen, Nelson, who had already reached Revel with his squadron, sailed back with apologies. On the very night of Pavel's murder, the Don Cossacks, sent by Pavel on a campaign against the British in India, were ordered to stop this expedition. Alexander I decided to follow a peaceful policy for the time being, restored peaceful relations with England by a convention on June 5, and concluded peace treaties on September 26 with France and Spain. Having achieved this, he considered it necessary, first of all, to devote himself to the internal transformational activity, which occupied the first four years of his reign.

Cancellation by Alexander I of the harsh measures of his father

The old Catherine's grandee Troshchinsky drafted a manifesto on the accession of the new emperor to the throne. It was published on March 12, 1801. Alexander I promised to rule in it "according to the laws and heart of his grandmother - Catherine the Great." This satisfied the main desire of Russian society, which was indignant at the persecution and extravagant arbitrariness of Paul. On the same day, all the victims of the secret expedition were released from prison and exile. Alexander I fired the main henchmen of his father: Obolyaninov, Kutaisov, Ertel. All officials and officers expelled without trial (from 12 to 15 thousand) were returned to service. The Secret Expedition was destroyed (established, however, not by Paul, but by Catherine II) and it was announced that every criminal should be punished not arbitrarily, but "by the force of laws." Alexander I lifted the ban on the import of foreign books, again allowed private printing houses, restored the free passage of Russian citizens abroad and the release of nobles and clergy from corporal punishment. With two manifestos of April 2, 1801, Alexander restored the Catherine's letters of commendation to the nobility and cities, which had been abolished by Paul. The freer customs tariff of 1797 was also restored, which Pavel shortly before his death replaced with another one, protectionist, unprofitable for England and Prussia. As the first hint of the government's desire to alleviate the fate of the serfs, the Academy of Sciences, which published statements and public announcements, was forbidden to accept advertisements for the sale of peasants without land.

Having ascended the throne, Alexander I did not abandon his penchant for liberal principles. At first, he, moreover, was still fragile on the throne and was highly dependent on the oligarchy of prominent nobles who killed Paul. In this regard, projects for the reform of higher institutions appeared, which did not change under Catherine II. Outwardly following liberal principles, these projects actually tended to increase the political significance not of the entire people, but of the highest officials - approximately the same as during the "venture" of the Supreme Privy Council under Anna Ioannovna. On March 30, 1801, according to the project of the same Troshchinsky, Alexander I established the "Indispensable Council" of 12 dignitaries, with the aim of serving as an advisory institution under the sovereign on all important matters. This one is formally deliberative body did not outwardly limit monarchical power, but its members, becoming "indispensable" (i.e., for life, without the king's right to change them at will), in fact, received a special, exclusive position in the system of power. All the most important state affairs and draft regulations were subject to consideration by the Indispensable Council.

Draft reform of the Senate and the development of new Russian legislation

On June 5, 1801, Alexander issued decrees addressed to another higher institution, the Senate. They instructed the senators by ourselves submit a report on their rights and obligations for their approval in the form of state law. By another decree of the same June 5, Alexander I established a commission of Count Zavadovsky "on the drafting of laws." Its goal, however, was not the development of new legislation, but the clarification and harmonization of existing laws with the publication then of their Code. Alexander I openly admitted that since the last Russian Code - 1649 - many conflicting laws had been issued.

The secret ("intimate") committee of Alexander I

All these decrees made a great impression on society, but the young king thought to go further. On April 24, 1801, Alexander I talked with P. Stroganov about the need indigenous state transformation. In May 1801 Stroganov proposed to Alexander I to establish a special secret committee to discuss the change plan. Alexander approved this idea and appointed Stroganov, Novosiltsev, Czartorysky and Kochubey to the committee. The work of the committee began on June 24, 1801, after the arrival of the last three from abroad. The mentor of Alexander I's youth, the Swiss Jacobin Laharpe, was also summoned to Russia.

Astute and knowledgeable of England better than Russia gr. V. P. Kochubey, smart, learned and capable N. N. Novosiltsev, admirer of the English order, Prince. A. Czartoryski, a Pole by sympathy, and c. P. A. Stroganov, who received an exclusively French upbringing, became the closest assistants of Alexander I for several years. None of them possessed state experience. The "Unspoken Committee" decided "first of all to find out the actual state of affairs" (!), then to reform the administration and, finally, "to introduce a constitution corresponding to the spirit of the Russian people." However, at that time, Alexander I most of all dreamed not so much of serious transformations, but of publishing some loud demonstrative declaration, like the famous Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

Alexander I instructed Novosiltsev to collect information about the state of affairs in Russia, and the committee did not expect the results of this collection for a long time. They were delayed by the fact that the committee met secretly and avoided giving official orders to officials to submit the necessary data. For the first time, the Private Committee began to use scraps of random information.

The discussion of Russia's international position revealed Alexander's complete unpreparedness in matters of foreign policy. Having just signed a friendly convention with England, he now impressed the members of the committee with the opinion that a coalition should be formed against the British. Czartoryski and Kochubey insisted that England was Russia's natural friend, since all the interests of Russian foreign trade were connected with her. Almost all Russian exports then went to England. Friends advised Alexander I to adhere to peacefulness, but at the same time carefully limit the ambition of the enemy of the British, France. These recommendations prompted Alexander to devote himself to a detailed study of foreign policy.

Projects for limiting autocracy and estate reforms in the early years of Alexander I

Alexander I wanted to start internal reforms with the issuance of a written "declaration of rights" and the transformation of the Senate into a body that would support these rights. The court oligarchy liked the idea of ​​such an organ. The last favorite of Catherine, Platon Zubov, proposed turning the Senate into an independent legislative body, formed from senior officials and representatives of the highest nobility. Derzhavin proposed that the Senate be composed of persons elected among themselves by officials of the first four classes. However, the Unofficial Committee rejected these projects as having nothing to do with popular representation.

A. R. Vorontsov proposed simultaneously with the coronation of Alexander I to issue a “charter to the people”, on the model of Catherine’s letters of commendation to cities and the nobility, but with the extension of guarantees of freedom of citizens to the whole people, which would largely repeat English habeas corpus act. Vorontsov and the famous Admiral Mordvinov (“a liberal, but with the views of an English Tory”) also advised depriving the nobles of the monopoly of real estate ownership and extending the right to own them to merchants, philistines and state peasants. But the Unspoken Committee of Alexander I decided that "when given state countries” such a letter is untimely. This vividly illustrated the caution of Alexander's young friends, whom their enemies called the Jacobin gang. The "old bureaucrat" Vorontsov turned out to be more liberal than them.

"Liberal" Mordvinov believed that the best remedy to limit autocratic power will be the creation of an independent aristocracy in Russia. For this, in his opinion, it was necessary to sell or distribute to the nobility a significant part of state lands. The liberation of the peasants, in his opinion, could be accomplished only at the request of the nobility, and not by "royal arbitrariness." Mordvinov sought to create an economic system in which the nobility would recognize the unprofitable forced labor of serfs and would themselves refuse it. He proposed giving the right to own real estate to raznochintsy, hoping that they would create farms with hired labor, which would become more efficient than serfdom and encourage landowners to abolish serfdom.

Zubov moved on. In an effort to restore the old, more favorable for the people and historically correct legal view of the fortress of the peasants land, not the face of the landowner, he proposed to ban the sale of serfs without land. (Alexander did forbid the Academy of Sciences to accept announcements of such a sale). Zubov also advised that Alexander I forbade landlords to own courtyards - people whom the nobility arbitrarily torn off from land plots and turned into personal domestic servants. However, Novosiltsev in the Unspoken Committee categorically opposed this, considering it necessary to "not hurry" with measures against serfdom, so as not to "irritate the landlords." The Jacobin La Harpe also turned out to be extremely indecisive, advising "first of all to spread enlightenment in Russia." Czartoryski, on the contrary, insisted that serfdom was such a vile thing, in the struggle against which nothing should be feared. Kochubey pointed out to Alexander I that according to the Mordvin project state peasants will receive an important right to own real estate, and landlords the peasants will be bypassed. Stroganov urged not to be afraid of the nobility, which is politically weak and unable to defend itself in the reign of Paul. But the peasant hopes, in his opinion, it was dangerous not to justify.

However, these convictions did not shake either Alexander I or Novosiltsev. Zubov's project was not accepted. But Alexander approved Mordvinov's idea to give non-nobles the right to buy uninhabited lands. Decree 12 Dec. In 1801, merchants, philistines and state peasants were given the right to acquire land real estate. On the other hand, in 1802 the landowners were allowed to conduct wholesale trade abroad with the payment of guild duties. (Later, in 1812, the peasants were also allowed to trade in their own name, with the payment of the required duties.) However, Alexander I decided to abolish serfdom only slowly and gradually, and the Committee did not outline any practical ways to do this.

The Committee almost did not touch upon the development of trade, industry and agriculture. But he took up the issue of transforming the central government, which was extremely necessary, because Catherine II, having reorganized local institutions and abolished almost all colleges, did not have time to transform the central bodies. This created a lot of confusion in business, which is partly why the government of Alexander I did not have accurate information about the state of the country. February 10, 1802 Czartoryski submitted a report to Alexander I, where he pointed out the need for a strict separation of the competence of the highest authorities, supervision, courts and legislation. He advised to clearly delineate the competences of the Permanent Council and the Senate. The Senate, according to Czartoryski, was to be in charge of only controversial cases, administrative and judicial, and the Permanent Council should be transformed into an advisory institution for considering important cases and draft laws. Czartoryski suggested to Alexander I that each of the individual departments of the supreme administration should be headed by a single minister, because in the collegiums created by Peter I, no one has personal responsibility for anything. Thus, it was Czartoryski who initiated one of the most important reforms of Alexander I - the establishment of ministries.

Establishment of ministries (1802)

The committee unanimously approved the idea of ​​creating ministries. The Manifesto of September 8, 1802, established the ministries of foreign affairs, military and navy, corresponding to the collegiums that remained at that time, and completely new ministries: internal affairs, finance, public education and justice. At the initiative of Alexander I, the Ministry of Commerce was added to them. In the Peter's Collegiums, matters were decided by a majority vote of their members. The ministries were based on the principle of unity of command of their head, who was responsible to the tsar for the work of his department. This was the main difference between ministries and colleges. In order to unite the activities of the ministries, all the ministers had to, gathering in general meetings, form a “committee of ministers”, in which the sovereign himself was often present. All ministers were present in the Senate. In some ministries, members of the Unspoken Committee took the positions of ministers or deputy ministers (for example, Count Kochubey became the Minister of the Interior, and Count Stroganov became his comrade). The establishment of the ministries became the only, completely independent and completed work of the Private Committee of Alexander I.

Transformation of the Senate into the highest court

The same manifesto of September 8, 1802 defined the new role of the Senate. The idea of ​​transforming it into a legislative institution was rejected. The Committee and Alexander I decided that the Senate (under the chairmanship of the sovereign) would become a body state supervision over the administration and the highest court. The Senate was allowed to report to the sovereign about laws that are very inconvenient to implement, or disagree with others - but the king could ignore these ideas. Ministers were required to submit their annual reports to the Senate. The Senate could demand any information and explanations from them. Only the Senate could judge senators.

End of the secret committee

The secret committee worked for only about a year. In May 1802, its meetings actually ceased. Only at the end of 1803 was it collected several more times, but on minor issues. Alexander I, apparently, was convinced that his friends were poorly prepared for practical activities, did not know Russia and were unable to carry out fundamental changes. Alexander gradually lost interest in the committee, began to convene it less frequently, and then it ceased to exist altogether. Although the Conservatives considered the Committee of Young Friends of Alexander I to be a "Jacobin gang", it can rather be accused of timidity and inconsistency. Both main questions - about serfdom and about limiting autocracy - were brought to naught by the Committee. However, classes in it gave Alexander I important new knowledge on domestic and foreign policy, which was very useful to him.

Decree on free cultivators (1803)

Alexander I nevertheless took some timid steps, designed to show his sympathy for the idea of ​​liberating the peasants. On February 20, 1803, a decree was issued on "free cultivators" (1803), which gave the nobles the right, under certain conditions, to free their serfs and provide them with their own land. The conditions concluded between the landlords and the peasants were approved by the government, after which the peasants were included in a special class of free cultivators, who were no longer considered either privately owned or state peasants. Alexander I hoped that in this way voluntary liberation of the villagers by the landlords, the abolition of serfdom will be gradually accomplished. But only a very few nobles took advantage of this method of setting the peasants free. During the entire reign of Alexander I, less than 50 thousand people were enrolled as free cultivators. Alexander I also stopped further distribution of populated estates to the landowners. The regulation on the peasants of the Livland province, approved on February 20, 1804, made their lot easier.

Measures of the first years of Alexander I in the field of education

Along with administrative and class reforms, the revision of laws continued in the commission of Count Zavadovsky, created on June 5, 1801, and a draft code began to be drawn up. This code, according to Alexander I, was supposed to "protect the rights of everyone and everyone", but remained undeveloped, except for one common part. But very important were the measures in the field of public education. On September 8, 1802, a commission (then the main board) of schools was established; she developed a position on the device educational institutions in Russia, approved on January 24, 1803. According to this provision, schools were divided into parish, district, provincial or gymnasiums and universities. The Academy of Sciences was restored in St. Petersburg, new regulations and staff were issued for it, and in 1804 the Academy of Sciences was founded. pedagogical institute, and in 1805 universities in Kazan and Kharkov. In 1805, P. G. Demidov donated significant capital to the device high school in Yaroslavl, gr. Bezborodko did the same for Nezhin, the nobility of the Kharkov province petitioned for the founding of a university in Kharkov and provided funds for this. In addition to general educational institutions, technical institutions were also founded: a commercial school in Moscow (in 1804), commercial gymnasiums in Odessa and Taganrog (1804); the number of gymnasiums and schools has been increased.

Break of Alexander I with France and the War of the Third Coalition (1805)

But all this peaceful reform activity was soon to cease. Alexander I, not accustomed to a stubborn struggle with those practical difficulties and surrounded by inexperienced young advisers who had little knowledge of Russian reality, soon lost interest in reforms. Meanwhile, European strife increasingly attracted the attention of the king, opening up a new field of diplomatic and military activity for him.

Assuming the throne, Alexander I intended to maintain peace and neutrality. He stopped preparations for war with England and renewed his friendship with her and with Austria. Relations with France immediately deteriorated, since France was then in sharp hostility with England, which was interrupted for a while by the Peace of Amiens in 1802, but resumed the following year. However, in the first years of Alexander I, no one in Russia thought about the war with the French. War became inevitable only after a series of misunderstandings with Napoleon. Napoleon became consul for life (1802) and then emperor of France (1804) and thus turned the French Republic into a monarchy. His enormous ambition worried Alexander I, and his arrogance in European affairs seemed extremely dangerous. Ignoring the protests of the Russian government, Napoleon forcibly disposed of in Germany and Italy. Violation of the articles of the secret convention of October 11 (N.S.) 1801 on the preservation of the inviolability of the possessions of the king of the Two Sicilies, the execution of the Duke of Enghien (March 1804) and the adoption of the imperial title by the first consul led to a rupture between France and Russia (August 1804). Alexander I became even closer to England, Sweden and Austria. These powers formed a new coalition against France (the "Third Coalition") and declared war on Napoleon.

But it was very unsuccessful: the shameful defeat of the Austrian troops at Ulm forced the Russian forces sent to help Austria, with Kutuzov at the head, to retreat from Inn to Moravia. The affairs under Krems, Gollabrun and Schöngraben were only ominous harbingers of the Austerlitz defeat (November 20, 1805), in which Emperor Alexander was at the head of the Russian army.

The results of this defeat affected: in the retreat of the Russian troops to Radziwillov, in the uncertain, and then hostile attitudes of Prussia towards Russia and Austria, in the conclusion of the Peace of Pressburg (December 26, 1805) and the Schönbrunn defensive and offensive alliance. Before the defeat of Austerlitz, Prussian relations with Russia remained extremely uncertain. Although Emperor Alexander managed to persuade the weak Friedrich Wilhelm to approve the secret declaration on May 12, 1804 regarding the war against France, but already on June 1 it was violated by new conditions concluded by the Prussian king with France. The same fluctuations are noticeable after the victories of Napoleon in Austria. During a personal meeting, imp. Alexander and the king in Potsdam concluded the Potsdam Convention on October 22. 1805 Under this convention, the king undertook to contribute to the restoration of the conditions of the Luneville peace violated by Napoleon, to accept military mediation between the warring powers, and in case of failure of such mediation, he had to join the Coalition. But the Peace of Schönbrunn (December 15, 1805) and even more so the Paris Convention (February 1806), approved by the King of Prussia, showed how little one could hope for consistency in Prussian policy. Nevertheless, the declaration and counter-declaration, signed on July 12, 1806, at Charlottenburg and on Kamenny Island, revealed a rapprochement between Prussia and Russia, a rapprochement that was confirmed by the Bartenstein Convention (April 14, 1807).

Union of Russia with Prussia and the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807)

But already in the second half of 1806, a new war broke out - the Fourth Coalition against France. The campaign began on October 8, was marked by the terrible defeats of the Prussian troops at Jena and Auerstedt, and would have ended with the complete subjugation of Prussia if Russian troops had not come to the aid of the Prussians. Under the command of M.F. Kamensky, who was soon replaced by Bennigsen, these troops put up strong resistance to Napoleon at Pultusk, then were forced to retreat after the battles of Morungen, Bergfried, Landsberg. Although the Russians also retreated after the bloody battle of Preussisch-Eylau, Napoleon's losses were so significant that he unsuccessfully sought an opportunity to enter into peace negotiations with Bennigsen and corrected his affairs only with a victory at Friedland (June 14, 1807). Emperor Alexander did not take part in this campaign, perhaps because he was still under the impression of the Austerlitz defeat, and only on April 2. In 1807 he came to Memel to meet with the King of Prussia, who was deprived of almost all his possessions.

Peace of Tilsit between Alexander I and Napoleon (1807)

The failure at Friedland forced him to agree to peace. Peace was desired by a whole party at the court of the sovereign and the army; the ambiguous behavior of Austria and the emperor's displeasure with regard to England were also prompted; finally, Napoleon himself needed the same peace. On June 25, a meeting took place between Emperor Alexander and Napoleon, who managed to charm the sovereign with his mind and insinuating treatment, and on the 27th of the same month, the Treaty of Tilsit was concluded. According to this treatise, Russia acquired the Belostok region; Emperor Alexander ceded Cattaro and the republic of 7 islands to Napoleon, and the Principality of Ievre to Louis of Holland, recognized Napoleon as emperor, Joseph of Naples as king of the Two Sicilies, and also agreed to recognize the titles of Napoleon's other brothers, present and future titles of members of the Confederation of the Rhine. Emperor Alexander took over the mediation between France and England and in turn agreed to Napoleon's mediation between Russia and the Porte. Finally, according to the same peace, "out of respect for Russia," the Prussian king was returned to his possessions. - The Treaty of Tilsit was confirmed by the Erfurt Convention (September 30, 1808), and Napoleon then agreed to the annexation of Moldavia and Wallachia to Russia.

Russo-Swedish War 1808–1809

When meeting in Tilsit, Napoleon, wanting to divert the Russian forces, pointed Emperor Alexander to Finland and even earlier (in 1806) armed Turkey against Russia. The reason for the war with Sweden was Gustav IV's dissatisfaction with the Peace of Tilsit and his unwillingness to enter into armed neutrality, restored in view of Russia's break with England (October 25, 1807). War was declared on March 16, 1808. Russian troops, commanded by c. Buxhowden, then c. Kamensky, occupied Sveaborg (April 22), won victories at Alovo, Kuortan and especially at Orovais, then crossed over the ice from Abo to the Aland Islands in the winter of 1809 under the command of Prince. Bagration, from Vasa to Umeå and through Torneo to Vestrabonia under the leadership of Barclay de Tolly and gr. Shuvalov. The successes of the Russian troops and the change of government in Sweden contributed to the conclusion of the Friedrichsham Peace (September 5, 1809) with the new king, Charles XIII. According to this world, Russia acquired Finland to the river. Torneo with the Aland Islands. Emperor Alexander himself visited Finland, opened the Diet and "preserved the faith, the fundamental laws, the rights and privileges that hitherto had been enjoyed by every class in particular and all the inhabitants of Finland in general according to their constitutions." A committee was set up in St. Petersburg and a secretary of state for Finnish affairs was appointed; in Finland itself, executive power was handed over to the governor-general, legislative power to the Governing Council, which later became known as the Finnish Senate.

Russian-Turkish war 1806-1812

Less successful was the war with Turkey. The occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia by Russian troops in 1806 led to this war; but until the Treaty of Tilsit, hostilities were limited to Michelson's attempts to occupy Zhurzhu, Ishmael and some friends. fortress, as well as the successful actions of the Russian fleet under the command of Senyavin against the Turkish, which suffered a severe defeat at Fr. Lemnos. The peace of Tilsit stopped the war for a while; but it resumed after the Erfurt meeting, in view of the refusal of the Porte to cede Moldavia and Wallachia. The failures of the book Prozorovsky were soon corrected by the brilliant victory of Count. Kamensky at Batyn (near Ruschuk) and the defeat of the Turkish army at Slobodze on the left bank of the Danube, under the command of Kutuzov, who was appointed to the place of the deceased c. Kamensky. The successes of Russian weapons forced the sultan to peace, but the peace negotiations dragged on for a very long time, and the sovereign, dissatisfied with the slowness of Kutuzov, had already appointed Admiral Chichagov as commander-in-chief when he learned about the conclusion of the Bucharest peace (May 16, 1812). According to this peace, Russia acquired Bessarabia with the fortresses of Khotyn, Bendery, Akkerman, Kiliya, Izmail to the Prut River, and Serbia - internal autonomy. - Next to the wars in Finland and on the Danube, Russian weapons had to fight in the Caucasus. After the unsuccessful administration of Georgia, Gen. Knorring was appointed chief governor of Georgia, Prince. Tsitsianov. He conquered the Jaro-Belokan region and Ganzha, which he renamed Elisavetopol, but was treacherously killed during the siege of Baku (1806). - When managing gr. Gudovich and Tormasov, Mingrelia, Abkhazia and Imeretia were annexed, and the exploits of Kotlyarevsky (the defeat of Abbas-Mirza, the capture of Lankaran and the conquest of the Talshinsky Khanate) contributed to the conclusion of the Gulistan Peace (October 12, 1813), the conditions of which changed after some acquisitions made by Mr. . Yermolov, commander-in-chief of Georgia since 1816.

Crisis of Russian finances

All these wars, although they ended in rather important territorial acquisitions, had a harmful effect on the state of the national and state economy. In 1801-1804. state revenues collected about 100 million. annually, there were up to 260 m. of banknotes in circulation, the external debt did not exceed 47.25 mil. silver rub., the deficit was negligible. Meanwhile, in 1810, incomes decreased two, and then four times. Banknotes were issued for 577 million rubles, the external debt increased to 100 million rubles, and there was a deficit of 66 million rubles. Accordingly, the value of the ruble has fallen sharply. In 1801-1804. the silver ruble accounted for 1.25 and 1.2 banknotes each, and on April 9, 1812, 1 p. silver equal to 3 p. assig. The courageous hand of the former pupil of the St. Petersburg Alexander Seminary brought the state economy out of such a difficult situation. Thanks to the activities of Speransky (especially the manifestos of February 2, 1810, January 29 and February 11, 1812), the issuance of banknotes was discontinued, the per capita salary and quitrent tax were increased, a new progressive income tax, new indirect taxes and duties were established. The monetary system was also transformed by the manifesto of June 20, 1810. The results of the transformations were already partly reflected in 1811, when revenues amounted to 355.5 million rubles (= 89 million rubles in silver), expenses extended only up to 272 m. 43 m., and a debt of 61 m.

Alexander I and Speransky

This financial crisis was caused by heavy wars. But these wars, after the Peace of Tilsit, no longer absorbed all the attention of Alexander I. The unsuccessful wars of 1805-1807. instilled in him a distrust of his own military abilities, and he again turned to internal transformations. At that time, a young and brilliant employee, Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky, appeared near Alexander as a new confidant. It was the son of the village priest. After graduating from the St. Petersburg "main seminary" (theological academy), Speransky was left there as a teacher and at the same time was secretary to Prince A. Kurakin. With the help of Kurakin, Speransky got a job in the office of the Senate. Talented and educated, he drew attention to himself with his abilities and diligence. After the formation of the ministries (1802), the new Minister of the Interior, Count Kochubey, appointed Speransky one of his closest assistants. Soon he became personally known to Alexander I, became very close to him and soon became, as it were, the first tsarist minister.

Alexander I instructed Speransky to work out overall plan state transformation, which failed the Unspoken Cabinet. Speransky, in addition, was placed at the head of a commission of laws that worked on the drafting of a new code. He was also an adviser to the sovereign on current affairs of government. With extraordinary diligence, Speransky worked for several years (1808-1812), showing a subtle mind and broad political knowledge. Well versed in French and English and with Western political literature, he had an outstanding theoretical training, which was often lacking in the members of the former Silent Committee. However, with administrative practice young and, in fact, inexperienced Speransky was little known. He and Alexander I in those years rested too much on the principles of abstract reason, coordinating them little with Russian reality and the country's historical past. This huge shortcoming became the main reason for the collapse of most of their joint projects.

Speransky's transformation plan

Being in great confidence with Alexander I, Speransky concentrated in his hands all the current management affairs: he was engaged in upset finances, diplomatic affairs, and the arrangement of the newly conquered Finland. Speransky revised the details of the reform of the central government carried out at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I, changed and improved the structure of the ministries. Changes in the distribution of affairs among ministries and in the manner in which they were administered were set out in a new law on ministries (the "general establishment of ministries", 1811). The number of ministries was increased to 11 (added: the Ministry of Police, Communications, State Control). On the contrary, the Ministry of Commerce was abolished. His affairs were distributed between the Ministries of the Interior and Finance. According to Speransky's plans, on August 6, 1809, new rules for the promotion to ranks in the civil service and on tests in the sciences for production in the 8th and 9th classes of officials without university certificates were promulgated by decree.

At the same time, Speransky drew up a plan for a radical state transformation. Instead of the former estates, a new division of citizens into "nobility", "people of the middle state" and "working people" was supposed. The entire population of the state over time was to become civilly free, and serfdom abolished - although Speransky worked out this part of the reform least of all and intended to carry out after major state transformations. The nobles retained the right to own inhabited lands and freedom from compulsory service. The average state was made up of merchants, philistines, villagers who had not inhabited the peasants of the land. The working people consisted of peasants, artisans and servants. It was supposed to divide the country anew into provinces, districts and volosts and create a new political system based on elective popular representation. The head of state was to be the monarch and his "state council". Under their leadership, three types of institutions should operate: legislative, executive and judicial.

For the election of legislative bodies, the landowners of each volost had to form a “volost duma” once every three years. The deputies from the volost dumas of the district would constitute the "district duma". and the deputies of the district dumas of the province - the "provincial Duma". From the deputies from all the provincial dumas, an all-Russian legislative institution would be formed - the "state Duma", which was supposed to be assembled annually in September to discuss laws.

The executive power was to be led by the ministries and their subordinate "provincial governments" with governors at the head. In order, it was assumed that the Senate would become the “supreme court” for the entire empire, and the volost, district and provincial courts would operate under its leadership.

Speransky saw the general meaning of the transformation "in the fact that the government, hitherto autocratic, should be established and established on an irrevocable law." Alexander I approved the project of Speransky, whose spirit coincided with his own liberal views, and intended to begin its implementation in 1810. By the Manifesto of January 1, 1810, the former Permanent Council was transformed into the State Council with legislative significance. All laws, charters and institutions were to be submitted for its consideration, although the decisions of the State Council received force only after their approval by the sovereign. The State Council was divided into four departments: 1) laws, 2) military affairs, 3) civil and religious affairs, 4) state economy. Speransky was appointed secretary of state under this new council. But things didn't go any further. The reform met strong resistance at the top of the government, and Alexander I considered it necessary to postpone it. The deterioration of the international situation strongly inclined to this - a new war with Napoleon was clearly brewing. As a result, Speransky's project on the establishment of a people's representation remained only a project.

Together with the work on the plan for the general transformation, Speransky directed the actions of the "commission of laws." In the first years of Alexander I, rather modest tasks were set before this commission, but now it was instructed to draw up a new legislative code from existing laws, supplementing and improving them from the general principles of jurisprudence. Under the influence of Speransky, the commission made large borrowings from French laws (Napoleon's Code). The draft of a new Russian civil code developed by her was submitted to the new State Council, but was not approved there. Members of the State Council, not without reason, considered Speransky's civil legislation to be too hasty and non-national, having little connection with Russian conditions. It remained unpublished.

Dissatisfaction with Speransky and his fall

The activities of Speransky and his rapid rise aroused displeasure in many. Some envied Speransky's personal successes, others saw him as a blind admirer of French ideas and practices and a supporter of an alliance with Napoleon. These people, out of patriotic feeling, armed themselves against the direction of Speransky. One of the most famous writers of that time, the European-educated N. M. Karamzin, compiled a note for Alexander I “on the ancient and new Russia”, which proved the harm and danger of Speransky's measures. These measures, according to Karamzin, thoughtlessly destroyed the old order and just as thoughtlessly introduced French forms into Russian life. Although Speransky denied his allegiance to France and Napoleon, in the eyes of the whole society, his closeness to French influences was undeniable. When Napoleon's invasion of Russia was expected, Alexander I did not consider it possible to leave Speransky near him. Speransky was dismissed from the post of state secretary; on some dark accusations, the sovereign sent him into exile (to Nizhny Novgorod, and then to Perm), from where the reformer returned only at the end of Alexander's reign.

Thus, the plan for a broad state transformation, developed jointly by Alexander I and Speransky, did not materialize. The secret committee of the first years of Alexander I found that they were poorly prepared. Speransky, on the contrary, was in theory very strong, but disadvantage practical skills, coupled with the lack of determination of the king himself, stopped all undertakings halfway. Speransky only managed to give the central institutions of Russia a finished look, restoring for a long time the centralization of government lost under Catherine II and strengthening the bureaucratic order.

Along with the reform of the central administration, transformations continued in the sphere of spiritual education. Candle income of the church, determined for the expenses for the construction of religious schools (1807), made it possible to increase their number. In 1809, a theological academy was opened in St. Petersburg and in 1814 - in the Sergius Lavra; in 1810 a corps of railway engineers was established, in 1811 the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was founded, and in 1814 the Public Library was opened.

Deterioration of relations between Alexander I and Napoleon

But the second period of transformative activity was disrupted by the new war. Soon after the Erfurt Convention, disagreements between Russia and France were revealed. By virtue of this convention, Emperor Alexander posted the 30,000th detachment of the allied army in Galicia during the Austrian war of 1809. But this detachment, which was under the command of Prince. S. F. Golitsyn, acted hesitantly, since Napoleon's obvious desire to restore or at least significantly strengthen Poland and his refusal to approve the convention on December 23. 1809, which protected Russia from such an increase, aroused strong fears on the part of the Russian government. The emergence of disagreements intensified under the influence of new circumstances. The tariff for 1811, issued on December 19, 1810, aroused Napoleon's displeasure. By the agreement of 1801, peaceful trade relations with France were restored, and in 1802 the trade agreement concluded in 1786 was extended for 6 years. But already in 1804 it was forbidden to bring any paper fabrics along the western border, and in 1805 duties were raised on some silk and woolen products in order to encourage local, Russian production. The government was guided by the same goals in 1810. The new tariff increased duties on wine, wood, cocoa, coffee and granulated sugar; foreign paper (except white under branding), linen, silk, woolen and similar products are prohibited; Russian goods, flax, hemp, bacon, flaxseed, sailing and flamme linens, potash and resin are subject to the highest selling duty. On the contrary, the importation of crude foreign products and the duty-free export of iron from Russian factories are allowed. The new tariff harmed French trade and infuriated Napoleon, who demanded that Emperor Alexander accept the French tariff and not accept not only English, but also neutral (American) ships in Russian harbors. Soon after the publication of the new tariff, the Duke of Oldenburg, the uncle of Emperor Alexander, was deprived of his possessions, and the sovereign's protest, circularly expressed on this occasion on March 12, 1811, remained without consequences. After these clashes, war was inevitable. Already in 1810, Scharnhorst assured that Napoleon had a plan of war against Russia ready. In 1811, Prussia entered into an alliance with France, then Austria.

Patriotic War of 1812

In the summer of 1812, Napoleon moved with the allied troops through Prussia and on June 11 crossed the Neman between Kovno and Grodno, with 600,000 troops. Emperor Alexander had military forces three times smaller; at their head were: Barclay de Tolly and Prince. Bagration in the Vilna and Grodno provinces. But behind this relatively small army stood the entire Russian people, not to mention individuals and the nobility of entire provinces, all of Russia voluntarily fielded up to 320,000 warriors and donated at least a hundred million rubles. After the first clashes between Barclay near Vitebsk and Bagration near Mogilev with French troops, as well as Napoleon's unsuccessful attempt to go behind Russian troops and occupy Smolensk, Barclay began to retreat along the Dorogobuzh road. Raevsky, and then Dokhturov (with Konovnitsyn and Neverovsky) succeeded in repelling Napoleon's two attacks on Smolensk; but after the second attack, Dokhturov had to leave Smolensk and join the retreating army. Despite the retreat, Emperor Alexander left without consequences Napoleon's attempt to start peace negotiations, but was forced to replace Barclay, who was unpopular among the troops, with Kutuzov. The latter arrived at the main apartment in Tsarevo Zaimishche on August 17, and on the 26th he fought the battle of Borodino. The outcome of the battle remained unresolved, but the Russian troops continued to retreat to Moscow, the population of which was strongly agitated against the French, among other things, posters gr. Rastopchina. The military council in Fili on the evening of September 1 decided to leave Moscow, which was occupied by Napoleon on September 3, but soon (October 7) was abandoned due to a lack of supplies, severe fires and a decline in military discipline. Meanwhile, Kutuzov (probably on the advice of Tolya) turned off the Ryazan road, along which he was retreating, to Kaluga and gave battles to Napoleon at Tarutin and Maloyaroslavets. Cold, hunger, unrest in the army, rapid retreat, successful actions of partisans (Davydov, Figner, Seslavin, Samus), Miloradovich's victories at Vyazma, ataman Platov at Vopi, Kutuzov at Krasnoe led French army in complete disorder, and after the disastrous crossing of the Berezina, they forced Napoleon, before reaching Vilna, to flee to Paris. On December 25, 1812, a manifesto was issued on the final expulsion of the French from Russia.

Foreign campaign of the Russian army 1813–1815

The Patriotic War was over; she made a strong change in the spiritual life of Emperor Alexander. In a difficult time of national disasters and spiritual anxieties, he began to seek support in a religious feeling and in this respect found support in the state. secret Shishkov, who now occupied a place that had been vacant after Speransky's removal before the start of the war. The successful outcome of this war further developed in the sovereign faith in the inscrutable ways of Divine Providence and the conviction that the Russian tsar had a difficult political task: to establish peace in Europe on the basis of justice, the sources of which the religious soul of Emperor Alexander began to look for in the gospel teachings. . Kutuzov, Shishkov, partly c. Rumyantsev was against the continuation of the war abroad. But Emperor Alexander, supported by Stein, firmly resolved to continue military operations.

January 1, 1813 Russian troops crossed the border of the empire and found themselves in Prussia. Already on December 18, 1812, York, the head of the Prussian detachment sent to help the French troops, entered into an agreement with Dibich on the neutrality of the German troops, although, however, he did not have permission from the Prussian government to do so. The Treaty of Kalisz (February 15-16, 1813) concluded a defensive-offensive alliance with Prussia, confirmed by the Treaty of Teplitsky (August 1813). Meanwhile, the Russian troops under the command of Wittgenstein, together with the Prussians, were defeated in the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen (April 20 and May 9). After the armistice and the so-called Prague Conferences, which resulted in Austria entering into an alliance against Napoleon under the Reichenbach Convention (June 15, 1813), hostilities resumed. After a successful battle for Napoleon at Dresden and unsuccessful at Kulm, Brienne, Laon, Arsis-sur-Aube and Fer Champenoise, Paris surrendered on March 18, 1814, the Peace of Paris was concluded (May 18) and Napoleon was overthrown. Shortly thereafter, on May 26, 1815, the Congress of Vienna opened, chiefly to discuss questions of Polish, Saxon, and Greek. Emperor Alexander was with the army throughout the campaign and insisted on the occupation of Paris by the allied forces. According to the main act of the Congress of Vienna (June 28, 1816), Russia acquired part of the Duchy of Warsaw, except for the grand duchy of Poznan, given to Prussia, and part ceded to Austria, and in the Polish possessions annexed to Russia, a constitution was introduced by Emperor Alexander, drawn up in liberal spirit. The peace negotiations at the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by Napoleon's attempt to seize the French throne again. Russian troops again moved from Poland to the banks of the Rhine, and Emperor Alexander left Vienna for Heidelberg. But the hundred-day reign of Napoleon ended with his defeat at Waterloo and the restoration of the legitimate dynasty in the person of Louis XVIII under the difficult conditions of the second Peace of Paris (November 8, 1815). Desiring to establish peaceful international relations between the Christian sovereigns of Europe on the basis of brotherly love and the gospel commandments, Emperor Alexander drew up an act of the Holy Alliance, signed by himself, the King of Prussia and the Austrian Emperor. International relations were maintained by congresses in Aachen (1818), where it was decided to withdraw the Allied troops from France, in Troppau (1820) about the unrest in Spain, Laibach (1821) - in view of the indignation in Savoy and the Neapolitan revolution, and, finally, in Verona (1822) - to pacify the indignation in Spain and discuss the Eastern question.

The position of Russia after the wars of 1812–1815

Direct result heavy wars 1812-1814 was the deterioration of the state economy. By January 1, 1814, only 587½ million rubles were listed in the parish; internal debts reached 700 million rubles, the Dutch debt extended to 101½ million guilders (= 54 million rubles), and the silver ruble in 1815 went for 4 rubles. 15 k. assign. How long these consequences were, reveals the state of Russian finances ten years later. In 1825, state revenues were only 529½ million rubles, banknotes were issued for 595 1/3 million rubles. rubles, which, together with the Dutch and some other debts, amounted to 350½ million rubles. ser. It is true that in trade matters more significant successes are noticed. In 1814, the import of goods did not exceed 113½ million rubles, and the export - 196 million rubles; in 1825 the importation of goods reached 185½ mil. rub., the export extended to the amount of 236½ mil. rub. But the wars of 1812-1814. had other consequences as well. The restoration of free political and commercial relations between the European powers also caused the publication of several new tariffs. In the tariff of 1816, some changes were made in comparison with the tariff of 1810; and the new tariff of 1822 marked a return to the former protective system. With the fall of Napoleon, the established relationship between the political forces of Europe collapsed. Emperor Alexander took over the new definition of their relationship.

Alexander I and Arakcheev

This task diverted the attention of the sovereign from the internal transformative activities of previous years, especially since the throne at that time was no longer the former admirers of English constitutionalism, and the brilliant theorist and supporter of French institutions Speransky was replaced over time by a stern formalist, chairman of the military department of the State Council and chief boss military settlements, Count Arakcheev, poorly gifted by nature.

The liberation of the peasants in Estonia and Courland

However, in government orders of the last decade of the reign of Emperor Alexander, traces of former reformative ideas are sometimes still visible. On May 28, 1816, the project of the Estonian nobility on the final emancipation of the peasants was approved. The Courland nobility followed the example of the Estonian nobles at the invitation of the government itself, which approved the same project for the Courland peasants on August 25, 1817 and for the Livland peasants on March 26, 1819.

Economic and financial measures

Together with estate orders, several changes were made in the central and regional administration. By decree of September 4, 1819, the Ministry of Police was attached to the Ministry of the Interior, from which the Department of Manufactories and Internal Trade was transferred to the Ministry of Finance. In May 1824, the affairs of the Holy Synod were separated from the Ministry of Public Education, where they were transferred according to the manifesto of October 24, 1817, and where only the affairs of foreign confessions remained. Even earlier, a manifesto on May 7, 1817 established a council of credit institutions, both for auditing and verifying all operations, and for considering and concluding all assumptions on the credit part. By the same time (manifesto of April 2, 1817), the replacement of the farming system with the state-owned sale of wine dates back; management of drinking fees is concentrated in state chambers. Concerning the regional administration, an attempt was also made soon after that to distribute the Great Russian provinces into governor-generals.

Enlightenment and printing in the last years of Alexander I

Government activity also continued to affect the care of public education. In 1819, public courses were organized at the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Institute, which laid the foundation for St. Petersburg University. In 1820 r. the engineering school was transformed and an artillery school was founded; The Richelieu Lyceum was founded in Odessa in 1816. Schools of mutual learning began to spread according to the method of Bel and Lancaster. In 1813, the Bible Society was founded, to which the sovereign soon issued a significant financial allowance. In 1814 the Imperial Public Library was opened in St. Petersburg. Individuals followed the lead of the government. Gr. Rumyantsev constantly donated cash for printing sources (for example, for the publication of Russian chronicles - 25,000 rubles) and scientific research. At the same time, journalistic and literary activity developed strongly. As early as 1803, a "periodical essay on the successes of public education" was published under the Ministry of Public Education, and the St. Petersburg Journal (since 1804) was published under the Ministry of the Interior. But these official publications were far from having the same significance that they received: "Bulletin of Europe" (since 1802) by M. Kachenovsky and N. Karamzin, "Son of the Fatherland" by N. Grech (since 1813), "Domestic Notes" P Svinin (since 1818), G. Spassky's "Siberian Bulletin" (1818-1825), F. Bulgarin's "Northern Archive" (1822-1838), which later merged with Son of the Fatherland. The publications of the Moscow Society of History and Antiquities, founded as early as 1804 ("Proceedings" and "Chronicles", as well as "Russian Memorabilia" - since 1815) were distinguished by a scholarly character. At the same time, V. Zhukovsky, I. Dmitriev and I. Krylov, V. Ozerov and A. Griboyedov acted, the sad sounds of Batyushkov's lyre were heard, the mighty voice of Pushkin was already heard and Baratynsky's poems began to be printed. Meanwhile, Karamzin was publishing his "History of the Russian State", and A. Schletser, N. Bantysh-Kamensky, K. Kalaidovich, A. Vostokov, Evgeny Bolkhovitinov (Metropolitan of Kiev), M. Kachenovsky, G. Evers. Unfortunately, this intellectual movement was subjected to repressive measures, partly under the influence of the unrest that took place abroad and resonated to a small extent in the Russian troops, partly due to the more and more religiously conservative direction that the sovereign’s own way of thinking was taking. On August 1, 1822, all sorts of secret societies were banned; in 1823, it was not allowed to send young people to some of the German universities. In May 1824, Admiral A. S. Shishkov, a well-known adherent of old Russian literary traditions, was entrusted with the administration of the Ministry of Public Education; from the same time, the Bible Society ceased to meet and censorship conditions were significantly constrained.

The death of Alexander I and the assessment of his reign

Emperor Alexander spent the last years of his life for the most part in constant traveling to the most remote corners of Russia, or in almost complete solitude in Tsarskoye Selo. At this time, the Greek question was the main subject of his concern. The uprising of the Greeks against the Turks, caused in 1821 by Alexander Ypsilanti, who was in the Russian service, and the indignation in the Morea and on the islands of the Archipelago provoked a protest from Emperor Alexander. But the Sultan did not believe the sincerity of such a protest, and the Turks in Constantinople killed many Christians. Then the Russian ambassador, bar. Stroganov, left Constantinople. War was inevitable, but, delayed by European diplomats, it broke out only after the death of the sovereign. Emperor Alexander died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog, where he accompanied his wife, Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna, to improve her health.

In the attitude of Emperor Alexander to the Greek question, the peculiarities of that third stage of development, which the political system created by him experienced in the last decade of his reign, were quite clearly affected. This system initially grew up on the soil of abstract liberalism; the latter was replaced by political altruism, which in turn was transformed into religious conservatism.

Literature about Alexander I

M. Bogdanovich. History of Emperor Alexander I, VI vol. St. Petersburg, 1869-1871

S. Solovyov. Emperor Alexander the First. Politics, diplomacy. SPb., 1877

A. Hadler. Emperor Alexander the First and the idea of ​​the Holy Union. Riga, IV vol., 1865–1868

H. Putyata, Review of the life and reign of imp. Alexander I (in the Historical Collection, 1872, No. 1)

Schilder. Russia in its relations to Europe in the reign of Emperor Alexander I, 1806-1815

A. Pypin. Social movement at Alexandra I. SPb., 1871

Alexander I

Emperor Alexander I.
Portrait by V.L. Borovikovsky from the original by E. Vigee-Lebrun. 1802.

Blessed

Alexander I Pavlovich Romanov (Blessed) (1777-1825) - Russian emperor from March 12 (24), 1801 - after the assassination of the emperor by conspirators from aristocratic circles Paul I.

At the beginning of his reign, his domestic policy showed a desire for moderate liberalism. The necessary transformations were discussed by members of the Unspoken Committee - the "young friends" of the emperor. Ministerial (1802), Senate (1802), university and school (1802-1804) reforms were carried out, the State Council was created (1810), the Decree on free cultivators was issued (1803), etc. After 1815, the tendency to conservatism (see Arakcheevshchina, military settlements).

He went down in history as a skilled politician and diplomat. He sought to create multilateral European unions (see the Holy Alliance), widely used negotiations with politicians and monarchs of Europe at congresses and in personal meetings (see the Tilsit treaties of 1807).

His foreign policy was mainly dominated by the European direction. In the first years of his reign, he tried to maintain peaceful relations with the powers that fought for hegemony in Europe (France and England), but after the aggressive tendencies in the policy of Napoleon I intensified, Russia became an active participant in the Third and Fourth anti-Napoleonic coalitions. As a result of the victory in the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809. The Grand Duchy of Finland was annexed to Russia. The defeat of Napoleon during the Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaign of the Russian army in 1813-1814. strengthened the international prestige of Russia and Alexander I personally - by decision of the Vienna Congress of 1814-1815, in which the Russian tsar was an active participant, most of the Polish lands (the Kingdom of Poland) were annexed to Russia.

Foreign policy in the eastern direction - the solution of the eastern issue - was expressed in the support of national movements in the Balkans, the desire to annex the Danubian principalities and gain a foothold in Transcaucasia (see the Russian-Turkish war of 1806-1812, the Bucharest peace treaty of 1812, the Gulistan peace treaty of 1813 G.).

The exchange of envoys in 1809 marked the beginning of Russian-American diplomatic relations.

Since 1815, a conservative trend has intensified in the foreign policy of Alexander I: with his consent, the Austrian troops suppressed the revolutions in Naples and Piedmont, and the French - in Spain; he took an evasive position in relation to the Greek uprising of 1821, which he considered as a speech of his subjects against the legitimate monarch (sultan).

Orlov A.S., Georgiev N.G., Georgiev V.A. Historical dictionary. 2nd ed. M., 2012, p. 11-12.

Other biographical material:

Persons:

Dolgorukov Petr Petrovich (1777-1806), prince, peer and close associate of Alexander I.

Elizaveta Alekseevna (1779-1826), Empress, wife of Emperor Alexander I.

Mordvinov Nikolai Semenovich (1754-1845), count, admiral.

Novosiltsev Nikolai Nikolaevich (1761-1836), personal friend of Alexander I.

Platov Matvey Ivanovich (1751 - 1818), cavalry general. Ataman.

Rostopchin Fedor Vasilievich (1763-1826), Russian statesman.

Speransky Mikhail Mikhailovich (1772-1839), prominent statesman.

Emperor Alexander at the Monk Seraphim of Sarov.
Salavat Shcherbakov. Moscow, Alexander Garden.

Literature:

Bezhin L. "LG-dossier" N 2, 1992.

Bogdanovich M. H., History of the reign of Alexander I and Russia in his time, vol. 1-6, St. Petersburg, 1869-1871;

Vallotton A. Alexander I. M. 1991.

Documents for the history of Russia's diplomatic relations with the Western European powers, from the conclusion of a general peace in 1814 to the congress in Verona in 1822. St. Petersburg. 1823. Vol. 1. Part 1. Vol. 2. 1825. -

Kizevetter A. A., Emperor Alexander I and Arakcheev, in the book: Historical essays, M., 1912;

Lenin, V.I. Works. T. IV. S. 337. -

Marx, K. and Engels, F. Works. T. IX. pp. 371-372, 504-505. T. XVI. Part II. S. 17, 21, 23, 24.-

Martens, F. F. Collection of treatises and conventions concluded by Russia with foreign powers. Vol. 2, 3, 4. Ch. 1.6.7, 11, 13, 14. St. Petersburg. 1875-1905. -

Martens, F. F. Russia and England at the beginning of the 19th century. "Bulletin of Europe". 1894. Prince. 10. S. 653-695. Book. 11. S. 186-223. -

Materials for the history of the Eastern question in 1808-1813 -

International politics of modern times in treaties, notes and declarations. Part 1. From the French Revolution to the Imperialist War. M. 1925. S. 61-136. -

Merezhkovsky D.S. Alexander the First M. "Armada", 1998.

Mironenko S. V. Autocracy and reforms: Political struggle in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. M., 1989.

Nikolai Mikhailovich, leader prince. Emperor Alexander I. Experience of historical research. T. 1-2-SPb. 1912.-

Picheta, V.I. International policy of Russia at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I (until 1807). In book. "Patriotic war and Russian society". T. 1. M. . pp. 152-174.-

Picheta, V. I. Russia's International Policy after Tilsit. In book. "Patriotic war and Russian society". T. 2. M. . pp. 1-32. -

Pokrovsky M. H., Alexander I, in the book: History of Russia in the 19th century, ed. Pomegranate, v. 1, St. Petersburg, b. G.;

Popov, A. N. Patriotic War of 1812. Historical research. T. 1. Relations between Russia and foreign powers before the war of 1812. M. 1905. VI, 492 p. -

Presnyakov A. E., Alexander I, P., 1924;

Predtechensky A. V., Essays on socio-political. history of Russia in the first quarter. XIX century., M.-L., 1957.

Okun S. B., Essays on the history of the USSR. Late XVIII - first quarter XIX in., L., 1956;

Safonov M.M. The problem of reforms in the government policy of Russia at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. L., 1988.

Sakharov A. N. Alexander I // Russian autocrats (1801-1917). M., 1993.

Collection of the Russian Historical Society. T. 21, 70, 77, 82, 83, 88, 89, 112, 119, 121, 127. St. Petersburg. 1877-1908. -

Solovyov S. M., Emperor Alexander I. Politics - diplomacy, St. Petersburg, 1877;

Solovyov, S. M. Emperor Alexander I. Politics-diplomacy. Collected works. SPb. . S. 249-758 (there is a separate edition: SPb. 1877. 560 s). - Nadler, V. K. Emperor Alexander I and the idea of ​​the Holy Alliance. T. 1-5. [Kharkov]. 1886-1892. -

Stalin, I. V. On Engels' article "The Foreign Policy of Russian Tsarism". "Bolshevik". M. 1941. No. 9. S. 1-5.-

Suvorov N. On the history of the city of Vologda: On the stay in Vologda of royal persons and other remarkable historical persons // VEV. 1867. N 9. S. 348-357.

Troitsky N. A. Alexander I and Napoleon. M., 1994.

Fedorov V.A. Alexander I // Questions of history. 1990. No. 1;

Schilder, N.K. Emperor Alexander the First. His life and reign. Ed. 2. Vol. 1-4. SPb. 1904-1905.-

Czartoryski, A. Mémoires du prince Adam Czartoryski et correspondance avec l empereur Alexandre I-er. Pref. de M. Ch. De Mazade. T. 1-2. Paris. 1887. (Czartorizhsky, A. Memoirs of Prince Adam Czartorizhsky and his correspondence with Emperor Alexander I. T. 1-2. M .. 1912). -

Vandal, A. Napoleon et Alexandre I-er. L alliance russe sous le premier empire. 6th ed. T. 1-3. Paris. . (Vandal, A. Napoleon and Alexander I. The Franco-Russian Union during the First Empire. T. 1-3. St. Petersburg. 1910-1913). -

See also literature to the article The Congress of Vienna 1814 - 1815.

Scroll depicting a funeral procession
during the funeral of Emperor Alexander I (detail).

Name: Alexander I (Alexander Pavlovich Romanov)

Age: 47 years old

Activity: Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia

Family status: was married

Alexander I: biography

Emperor Alexander I Pavlovich, sometimes erroneously referred to as Tsar Alexander I, ascended the throne in 1801 and ruled for almost a quarter of a century. Russia under Alexander I waged successful wars against Turkey, Persia and Sweden, and later became embroiled in the war of 1812 when Napoleon attacked the country. During the reign of Alexander I, the territory expanded due to the annexation of Eastern Georgia, Finland, Bessarabia and part of Poland. For all the transformations introduced by Alexander I, he was called Alexander the Blessed.

Power today

The biography of Alexander I was originally supposed to be outstanding. Not only was he the eldest son of the emperor and his wife Maria Feodorovna, but the grandmother did not have a soul in her grandson. It was she who gave the boy a sonorous name in honor and, in the hope that Alexander would create history following the example of the legendary namesakes. It is worth noting that the name itself was unusual for the Romanovs, and only after the reign of Alexander I did it firmly enter the family name book.

Arguments and Facts

The personality of Alexander I was formed under the tireless supervision of Catherine the Great. The fact is that the empress initially considered the son of Paul I incapable of taking the throne and wanted to crown her grandson “over the head” of her father. The grandmother tried to ensure that the boy almost did not communicate with his parents, however, Pavel had influence on his son and he took over his love for military science from him. Young heir he grew up affectionate, smart, easily acquired new knowledge, but at the same time he was very lazy and proud, which is why Alexander I did not manage to learn how to focus on painstaking and lengthy work.

Wikipedia

Contemporaries of Alexander I noted that he had a very lively mind, incredible insight and was easily carried away by everything new. But since two opposite natures, grandmother and father, actively influenced him from childhood, the child was forced to learn to please absolutely everyone, which became the main characteristic of Alexander I. Even Napoleon called him an “actor” in a good sense, and Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin wrote about Emperor Alexander "in the face and life of a harlequin."

Runiverse

Fascinated by military affairs, the future Emperor Alexander I served in active service in the Gatchina troops, which were personally formed by his father. The result of the service was deafness of the left ear, but this did not prevent Paul I from making his son a colonel of the guard when he was only 19 years old. A year later, the son of the ruler became the military governor of St. Petersburg and headed the Semenovsky Guards Regiment, then Alexander I briefly presided over the military parliament, after which he began to sit in the Senate.

Reign of Alexander I

Emperor Alexander I ascended the throne immediately after the violent death of his father. A number of facts confirm that he was aware of the plans of the conspirators to overthrow Paul I, although he may not have suspected regicide. It's the new head Russian Empire announced the "apoplexy" that struck his father, and literally a few minutes after his death. In September 1801, Alexander I was crowned.

Ascension of Emperor Alexander to the Throne | Runiverse

The very first decrees of Alexander I showed that he intended to eradicate judicial arbitrariness in the state and introduce strict legality. Today it seems incredible, but at that time there were practically no strict fundamental laws in Russia. Together with his closest associates, the emperor formed a secret committee with which he discussed all plans for state reform. This community was called the Committee of Public Salvation, and is also known as the Public Movement of Alexander I.

Reforms of Alexander I

Immediately after Alexander I came to power, the transformations became visible to the naked eye. It is customary to divide his reign into two parts: at first, the reforms of Alexander I occupied all his time and thoughts, but after 1815 the emperor became disillusioned with them and began a reactionary movement, that is, on the contrary, clamped people in a vise. One of the most important reforms was the creation of the "Indispensable Council", which was later transformed into the State Council with several departments. The next step is the creation of ministries. If earlier decisions on any issues were taken by majority vote, now a separate minister was responsible for each industry, who regularly reported to the head of state.

Reformer Alexander I | Russian history

The reforms of Alexander I also touched upon the peasant question, at least on paper. The emperor thought about the abolition of serfdom, but he wanted to do it gradually, but he could not determine the steps for such a slow emancipation. As a result, the decrees of Alexander I on "free cultivators" and the ban on the sale of peasants without the land on which they live turned out to be a drop in the ocean. But Alexander's transformations in the field of education became more significant. By his order, a clear gradation of educational institutions was created according to the level of the educational program: parish and district schools, provincial schools and gymnasiums, and universities. Thanks to the activities of Alexander I, the Academy of Sciences was restored in St. Petersburg, the famous Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was created, and five new universities were founded.

Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum founded by Emperor Alexander I | All-Russian Museum of A.S. Pushkin

But the sovereign's naive plans for the rapid transformation of the country ran into opposition from the nobles. He could not quickly implement his reforms because of the fear of a palace coup, plus the attention of Alexander 1 of the war was occupied. Therefore, despite good intentions and the desire for reform, the emperor could not bring all his desires to life. In fact, in addition to educational and state reform, only the Polish constitution is of interest, which the ruler's associates considered as a prototype for the future Constitution of the entire Russian Empire. But the turn of Alexander I's domestic policy towards reaction buried all the hopes of the liberal nobility.

Politics of Alexander I

The starting point for a change of opinion about the need for reform was the war with Napoleon. The emperor realized that in the conditions that he wanted to create, a quick mobilization of the army was impossible. Therefore, Emperor Alexander 1 shifts politics from liberal ideas to the interests of state security. A new reform is being developed, which turned out to be the most accustomed: military reforms.

Portrait of Alexander I | Runiverse

With the help of the Minister of War, a project is being created for a completely new type of life - a military settlement, which was a new class. Without much burdening the country's budget, it was supposed to maintain and equip a standing army with a strength at the wartime level. The growth in the number of such military districts continued throughout the years of the reign of Alexander I. Moreover, they were preserved under the successor Nicholas I and were abolished only by the emperor.

Wars of Alexander I

In fact, the foreign policy of Alexander I was reduced to a series of constant wars, thanks to which the country's territory increased significantly. After the end of the war with Persia, Russia of Alexander I received military control in the Caspian Sea, and also expanded its possessions by annexing Georgia. After Russian-Turkish war Bessarabia and all the states of Transcaucasia replenished the possessions of the Empire, and after the conflict with Sweden - Finland. In addition, Alexander I fought with England, Austria and started the Caucasian War, which did not end during his lifetime.

The main military adversary of Russia under Emperor Alexander I was France. Their first armed conflict took place as early as 1805, which, despite periodic peace agreements, constantly flared up again. Finally, inspired by his fantastic victories, Napoleon Bonaparte sent troops into the territory of Russia. The Patriotic War of 1812 began. After the victory, Alexander I concluded an alliance with England, Prussia and Austria and made a number of foreign campaigns, during which he defeated Napoleon's army and forced him to abdicate. After that, the Kingdom of Poland also went to Russia.

When the French army ended up on the territory of the Russian Empire, Alexander I declared himself commander-in-chief and forbade peace negotiations until at least one enemy soldier remained on Russian soil. But the numerical advantage of Napoleon's army was so great that Russian troops constantly retreated inland. Soon the emperor agrees that his presence interferes with the military leaders, and leaves for St. Petersburg. Mikhail Kutuzov becomes the commander-in-chief, who was very respected by soldiers and officers, but most importantly, this man has already proved himself to be an excellent strategist.

Painting "Kutuzov on the Borodino field", 1952. Artist S. Gerasimov | Mind mapping

And in Patriotic war 1812, Kutuzov again showed his sharp mind as a military tactician. He outlined a decisive battle near the village of Borodino and positioned the army so well that it was covered from two flanks natural relief, and in the center the commander-in-chief placed artillery. The battle was desperate and bloody, with huge losses on both sides. The battle of Borodino is considered a historical paradox: both armies declared their victory in the battle.

The painting "Napoleon's Retreat from Moscow", 1851. Artist Adolf Nortern | Chrontime

To keep his troops on alert, Mikhail Kutuzov decides to leave Moscow. The result was the burning of the former capital and its occupation by the French, but Napoleon's victory in this case turned out to be Pirova. In order to feed his army, he was forced to move to Kaluga, where he had already concentrated the forces of Kutuzov and did not let the enemy go further. Moreover, partisan detachments delivered effective blows to the invaders. Deprived of food and unprepared for the Russian winter, the French began to retreat. The final battle near the Berezina River put an end to the rout, and Alexander I issued a Manifesto on the victorious end of the Patriotic War.

Personal life

In his youth, Alexander was very friendly with sister Ekaterina Pavlovna. Some sources even hinted at a relationship more than just brother and sister. But these conjectures are very unlikely, since Catherine was 11 years younger, and at the age of 16, Alexander I had already connected his personal life with his wife. He married a German woman, Louise Maria Augusta, who, after the adoption of Orthodoxy, became Elizaveta Alekseevna. They had two daughters, Maria and Elizabeth, but both died at the age of one, so it was not the children of Alexander I who became the heir to the throne, but his younger brother Nicholas I.

TVNZ

Due to the fact that his wife could not give him a son, the emperor's relationship with his wife cooled greatly. He hardly hid his love relationship on the side. At first, Alexander I cohabited for almost 15 years with Maria Naryshkina, the wife of Chief Jägermeister Dmitry Naryshkin, whom all the courtiers called in his eyes "an exemplary cuckold." Maria gave birth to six children, and the paternity of five of them is usually attributed to Alexander. However, most of these children died in infancy. Also, Alexander I had an affair with the daughter of the court banker Sophie Velho and with Sophia Vsevolozhskaya, who gave birth to his illegitimate son, Nikolai Lukash, a general and war hero.

Wikipedia

In 1812, Alexander I became interested in reading the Bible, although before that he was basically indifferent to religion. But he, like his best friend Alexander Golitsyn, was not satisfied with the framework of Orthodoxy alone. The emperor was in correspondence with Protestant preachers, studied mysticism and various currents Christian faith and sought to unite all denominations in the name of "universal truth". Russia under Alexander I became more tolerant than ever before. official church was outraged by such a turn and began a secret behind-the-scenes struggle against the like-minded emperor, including Golitsyn. The victory remained with the church, which did not want to lose power over the people.

Emperor Alexander I died at the beginning of December 1825 in Taganrog, during the next trip, which he loved very much. The official cause of death of Alexander I was fever and inflammation of the brain. The sudden death of the ruler caused a wave of rumors, spurred on by the fact that shortly before that, Emperor Alexander had drawn up a manifesto in which he transferred the right of succession to his younger brother Nikolai Pavlovich.

Death of Emperor Alexander I | Russian Historical Library

People began to say that the emperor faked his death and became a hermit Fyodor Kuzmich. Such a legend was very popular during the lifetime of this really existing old man, and in the 19th century it received additional arguments. The fact is that it was possible to compare the handwriting of Alexander I and Fyodor Kuzmich, which turned out to be almost identical. Moreover, today genetic scientists have a real project to compare the DNA of these two people, but so far this examination has not been carried out.

Emperor Alexander I was the grandson of Catherine the Great from her only son Pavel Petrovich and the German princess Sophia of Württemberg, in Orthodoxy Maria Feodorovna. He was born in St. Petersburg on December 25, 1777. Named after Alexander Nevsky, the newborn crown prince was immediately taken away from his parents and brought up under the control of the royal grandmother, which greatly influenced the political views of the future autocrat.

Childhood and youth

Alexander's entire childhood passed under the control of his reigning grandmother, he almost did not communicate with his parents, however, despite this, he, like Father Pavel, loved and was well versed in military affairs. The Tsarevich served in active service in Gatchina, at the age of 19 he was promoted to colonel.

The Tsarevich had insight, quickly grasped new knowledge and studied with pleasure. It was in him, and not in her son Paul, that Catherine the Great saw the future Russian emperor, but she could not put him on the throne, bypassing her father.

At the age of 20, he became the governor-general of St. Petersburg and the chief of the Semenovsky Guards Regiment. A year later, he begins to sit in the Senate.

Alexander was critical of the policies pursued by his father Emperor Paul, so he became involved in a conspiracy aimed at removing the emperor from the throne and accession of Alexander. However, the condition of the crown prince was to save the life of his father, so the violent death of the latter brought the crown prince a feeling of guilt for life.

Married life

The personal life of Alexander I was very eventful. Marriage relations with the Tsarevich began early - at the age of 16 he was married to the fourteen-year-old Princess Louise Maria Augusta of Baden, who changed her name in Orthodoxy, becoming Elizaveta Alekseevna. The newlyweds were very suitable for each other, for which among the courtiers they received the nicknames Cupid and Psyche. In the first years of marriage, the relationship between the spouses was very tender and touching, the Grand Duchess was very loved and respected at court by everyone except mother-in-law Maria Feodorovna. However, warm relations in the family soon changed to cool ones - the newlyweds had too different characters, besides, Alexander Pavlovich often cheated on his wife.

The wife of Alexander I was distinguished by modesty, did not like luxury, was engaged in charity work, she preferred walking and reading books to balls and social events.

Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna

For almost six years, the marriage of the Grand Duke did not bear fruit, and only in 1799 did Alexander I have children. The Grand Duchess gave birth to a daughter, Maria Alexandrovna. The birth of the baby led to an intra-family scandal in the imperial family. Alexander's mother hinted that the child was born not from the Tsarevich, but from Prince Czartoryski, in an affair with whom she suspected her daughter-in-law. In addition, the girl was born a brunette, and both parents were blondes. Emperor Paul also hinted at the betrayal of his daughter-in-law. Tsarevich Alexander himself recognized his daughter and never spoke about the possible betrayal of his wife. The happiness of fatherhood was short-lived, Grand Duchess Maria lived a little over a year and died in 1800. The death of her daughter briefly reconciled and brought the couple closer.

Grand Duchess Elizabeth Alexandrovna

Numerous novels increasingly alienated the crowned spouses, Alexander, without hiding, cohabited with Maria Naryshkina, and since 1803, Empress Elizabeth began an affair with Alexy Okhotnikov. In 1806, the wife of Alexander I gave birth to a daughter, Grand Duchess Elizabeth, despite the fact that the couple had not lived together for several years, the emperor recognized his daughter, which made the girl first in line for the Russian throne. The children of Alexander I did not please him for long. The second daughter died at the age of 18 months. After the death of Princess Elizabeth, the relationship of the married couple became even cooler.

Love affair with Maria Naryshkina

Married life with in many ways did not work out because of Alexander's fifteen-year connection with the daughter of the Polish aristocrat M. Naryshkina, before the marriage of Chetvertinskaya. Alexander did not hide this connection, his family and all the courtiers knew about it, moreover, Maria Naryshkina herself, at every opportunity, tried to prick the emperor's wife, hinting at an affair with Alexander. Over the years of a love affair, Alexander was credited with paternity of five of the six children of Naryshkina:

• Elizaveta Dmitrievna, born in 1803,
• Elizaveta Dmitrievna, born in 1804,
• Sofia Dmitrievna, born in 1808,
• Zinaida Dmitrievna, born in 1810,
• Emmanuil Dmitrievich, born in 1813.

In 1813, the emperor broke up with Naryshkina, as he suspected her of having an affair with another man. The emperor suspected that Emmanuel Naryshkin was not his son. After parting, the former lovers maintained friendly relations. Of all the children of Maria and Alexander I, Sofya Naryshkina lived the longest. She died at 16, on the eve of her wedding.

Illegitimate children of Alexander I

In addition to children from Maria Naryshkina, Emperor Alexander also had other favorites.

• Nikolai Lukash, born in 1796 from Sophia Meshcherskaya;
• Maria, born in 1819 to Maria Turkestanova;
• Maria Alexandrovna of Paris (1814), mother of Margarita Josephine Weimer;
• Alexandrova Wilhelmina Alexandrina Paulina, born 1816, mother unknown;
• (1818), mother Elena Rautenstrauch;
• Nikolay Isakov (1821), mother - Karacharova Maria.

The paternity of the last four children among researchers of the biography of the emperor remains controversial. Some historians generally doubt whether Alexander I had children.

Domestic policy 1801 -1815

Having ascended the throne in March 1801, Alexander I Pavlovich proclaimed that he would continue the policy of his grandmother Catherine the Great. In addition to the title of Russian emperor, Alexander was titled Tsar of Poland since 1815, Grand Duke of Finland since 1801 and Protector of the Order of Malta since 1801.

Alexander I (from 1801 to 1825) began his reign with the development of radical reforms. The emperor abolished the Secret Expedition, prohibited the use of torture against prisoners, allowed the importation of books from abroad and the opening of private printing houses in the country.

Alexander took the first step towards the abolition of serfdom by issuing a decree “On free cultivators”, and introduced a ban on the sale of peasants without land, but these measures did not make any special changes.

Reforms in the education system

Alexander's reforms in the education system were more fruitful. A clear gradation of educational institutions was introduced according to the level educational programs Thus, district and parish schools, provincial gymnasiums and colleges, and universities appeared. During the years 1804-1810. Kazan and Kharkov universities were opened, a pedagogical institute was opened in St. Petersburg, the privileged Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, the Academy of Sciences was restored in the capital.

From the first days of his reign, the emperor surrounded himself with young educated people with progressive views. One of these was the jurist Speransky, it was under his leadership that the Petrovsky collegiums in the Ministry were reformed. Speransky also began developing a project to rebuild the empire, which provided for the separation of powers and the creation of an elected representative body. Thus, the monarchy would have been transformed into a constitutional one, but the reform was opposed by the political and aristocratic elites, so it was not carried out.

Reforms 1815-1825

Under the reign of Alexander I, the history of Russia changed dramatically. The emperor was active in domestic politics at the beginning of his reign, but after 1815 they began to decline. In addition, each of his reforms met with fierce resistance from the Russian nobility. Since that time, there have been no significant changes in the Russian Empire. In 1821-1822, a secret police was established in the army, secret organizations and Masonic lodges were banned.

The exceptions were the western provinces of the empire. In 1815, Alexander 1 granted the Tsardom of Poland a constitution, according to which Poland became a hereditary monarchy within Russia. In Poland, the bicameral Sejm was retained, which, together with the king, was the legislative body. The constitution was liberal in nature and in many ways resembled the French Charter and the constitution of England. Also in Finland, the implementation of the constitutional law of 1772 was guaranteed, and the peasants of the Baltic states were freed from serfdom.

Military reform

After the victory over Napoleon, Alexander saw that the country needed to be held military reform, therefore, since 1815, the Minister of War Arakcheev was instructed to develop its project. It implied the creation of military settlements as a new military-agricultural estate, which would complete the army on a permanent basis. The first such settlements were introduced in the Kherson and Novgorod provinces.

Foreign policy

The reign of Alexander I left its mark on foreign policy. In the first year of his reign, he concluded peace treaties with England and France, and in 1805-1807 joined the ranks against the Emperor of France, Napoleon. The defeat at Austerlitz aggravated the position of Russia, which led to the signing of the Treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon in June 1807, which implied the creation of a defensive alliance between France and Russia.

More successful was the Russian-Turkish confrontation of 1806-1812, which ended with the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, according to which Bessarabia ceded to Russia.

The war with Sweden in 1808-1809 ended with the victory of Russia, under a peace treaty, the empire received Finland and the Aland Islands.

Also during the reign of Alexander during the Russian-Persian war, Azerbaijan, Imeretia, Guria, Mengrelia and Abkhazia were annexed to the empire. The empire received the right to have its own Caspian fleet. Earlier, in 1801, Georgia became part of Russia, and in 1815, the Duchy of Warsaw.

However, the greatest victory of Alexander is the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812, so it was he who led the years 1813-1814. In March 1814, the Emperor of Russia entered Paris at the head of the coalition armies, he also became one of the leaders of the Congress of Vienna to establish a new order in Europe. The popularity of the Russian emperor was colossal, in 1819 he became the godfather of the future Queen of England Victoria.

Emperor's death

According to official version, Emperor Alexander I Romanov died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog from complications of inflammation of the brain. Such an early death of the emperor caused a lot of rumors and legends.

In 1825, the health of the emperor's wife deteriorated sharply, doctors advised southern climate, it was decided to go to Taganrog, the emperor decided to accompany his wife, relations with which last years became very warm.

While in the south, the emperor visited Novocherkassk and the Crimea, on the way he caught a bad cold and died. Alexander was distinguished by good health and never got sick, so the death of the 48-year-old emperor became suspicious for many, and many considered his unexpected desire to accompany the empress on a trip suspicious too. In addition, the body of the king before the burial was not shown to the people, the farewell took place with a closed coffin. Even more rumors were generated by the imminent death of the emperor's wife - Elizabeth died six months later.

Emperor - old man

In 1830-1840. the deceased tsar began to be identified with a certain old man Fyodor Kuzmich, who, with his features, resembled the emperor, and also had excellent manners that were not characteristic of a simple tramp. There were rumors among the population that the emperor's double was buried, and the tsar himself lived under the name of an elder until 1864, while Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna herself was also identified with the hermit Vera the Silent.

The question of whether the elder Fyodor Kuzmich and Alexander are one person has not yet been clarified; only a genetic examination can put all the dots over the “i”.

Emperor Alexander the First Pavlovich the Blessed
(1777-1825)
Years of government: 1801-1825

On December 12, 1777, the first son was born in the family of the heir to the throne, Pavel Petrovich.
In his honor, a thanksgiving service was served in the court church, and cannons in Peter and Paul Fortress With a shot they announced to the world the birth of the first child of the royal couple. The name of the baby was given in honor of the saint
Alexander Nevsky. Little Alexander was immediately excommunicated from his parents.
The reigning grandmother, Ekaterina2, considered her son unable to give the boy a proper upbringing and placed her grandson in her chambers.
Catherine had high hopes for her grandson. She dreamed that during the reign, Alexander would glorify his name for centuries, like the person after whom he was named. The Empress hated her son and adored her grandson. She also took away her second grandson, the son of Pavel Petrovich,
Constantine.
Since 1785, Adjutant General Saltykov, who was distinguished by devotion to the Empress, was assigned to the boys as an educator. Alexander, along with virtues, had such qualities of character as stubbornness and cunning.
Growing up, he began to understand that the relationship between father and grandmother is the relationship between the empress and the heir to the throne. He felt that he himself was drawn into their struggle from birth.
Catherine believed all her life that her grandson madly loves her and catches her every word. Alexander pretended that it was so, but he himself denied everything that was connected with Catherine. Big influence Alexander was tutored by Frederic Cesar Laharpe, a Swiss lawyer, a man of high morals and a real humanist. He conveyed to Alexander the essence of French enlightenment. Konstantin, unlike his brother, did not accept these ideas at all.
Alexander idolized the teacher. One of the principles preached by La Harpe was the following: the ruler must be an honest, educated and enlightened person, aware of the responsibility for the fate of millions of his subjects. La Harpe inspired the pupil that the emperor could not afford to have friends.
Pavel Petrovich forced his grown sons to join in military service in Gatchina.
It was in Gatchina that the future emperor met Arakcheev, who later became his main favorite. Arakcheev taught artillery, introduced the grand dukes to the basics of ballistics.
Even during the life of Catherine and Paul, Alexander had the idea of ​​​​renouncing the future throne. He began to think that he was born not to be a ruler, but an ordinary ordinary citizen. His views on life were completely shared by his wife Elizaveta Alekseevna. They managed to maintain the spiritual intimacy that arose between them for many years.
The events preceding his accession to the throne turned his feelings upside down. He did not take part in the conspiracy against his father, but silently assisted him. Alexander did not want his father's death. The thought that he himself caused the death of his father was painful for him.
Having become emperor, he got up early, worked on documents for a long time, received court ministers.
Alexander traveled a lot, he traveled hundreds of thousands of miles across Russia. He was in Ukraine, Belarus, the Urals and Siberia. He met with local authorities, was interested in the living conditions of all sectors of society. The impression from the trips was painful, and there were no longer any illusions about possible transformations from the height of the throne.
His reign was marked by the fact that he pardoned many prisoners, dismissed from service again, took their places. The Secret Expedition, which under Paul was engaged in cases related to betrayal of the emperor, was destroyed.
In 1801, Alexander allowed peasants to buy land, and from 1803, serfs were given the right to redeem entire villages along with the land. This, of course, was not enough, but it was these first steps that paved the way for subsequent reforms.
Foreign policy was led by Kochubey, Zubov and Palen, they developed a draft of a new constitution, according to which the emperor followed the decisions of the aristocracy in everything. Alexander politely but firmly rejected attempts to limit imperial power. He had very different plans.
While Alexander soared in dreams of rebuilding society, discussing his plans with like-minded people, the ministers and the Senate continued to rule the country as before. It was incredibly difficult to get out of the networks of this routine.
Alexander1 was not ready to carry out decisive reforms in society. He was also frightened by the uncertainty associated with his position during these changes. He was afraid to part with his life, like his grandfather and father. He was extremely cautious and suspicious. The brothers Zubov and Palen failed to create opposition to the sovereign. Palen was deprived of all positions, the same fate awaited the Zubov brothers.
Petersburg governor instead of Palen, was appointed M.I. Kutuzov.
M. M. Speransky became the first assistant to the sovereign. He was instructed to prepare a document with a plan public education for all strata of society. On the basis of this document, the State Council under the emperor was created.
The state carried out reforms in the education system: new universities, gymnasiums and colleges were opened. Karamzin was granted the title of historiographer and allowed to begin work on the history of the Russian state.
All these transformations took place against the backdrop of military events in Europe.
Alexander, assuming the throne, declared that he would not interfere in the affairs of other states. In France at that time, Napoleon Bonaparte persistently strove for power, not hiding his claims on the territory of neighboring countries.
Alexander closely watched the events in France. In 1803, the Boulogne camp appeared, from where Napoleon was going to attack the British Isles. After Napoleon became emperor of France, Russia entered into a friendly alliance with England and Prussia. Europe smelled of war.
By 1805, a coalition against Napoleon was formed, which included: Russia, Austria, Prussia and England. Russian troops were on their way to Europe.
The first battle of the Russian-Austrian army on December 2, 1805 near Austerlitz ended in the complete defeat of the allies. Alexander himself miraculously escaped captivity. This cruel lesson helped him understand the gravity of the French threat. From that moment on, the emperor began to consider Napoleon his personal mortal enemy. The figure of Arakcheev became more noticeable at court. At the conclusion of the Tilsit peace, Alexander, talking one on one with Napoleon, used his charm and was able to deceive him. Concluding peace, the emperors carried out the division of Europe, but the conditions were dictated by the winner. Alexander could only dream that the conceited tyrant would break his neck on Russian soil.
The second meeting between Alexander and Napoleon took place in Erfurt, where, with his characteristic restraint, goodwill, and calmness. Alexander managed to get Napoleon's consent to the annexation of Moldavia, Velachia. Finland, as well as the withdrawal of French troops from the Duchy of Warsaw and a significant reduction in indemnities from Prussia. The negotiations were very tense.
After negotiations, Napoleon was denied the hand of the sister of the Russian emperor, Ekaterina Pavlovna. Napoleon also failed to get the hand of another sister of Alexander. The French emperor was furious.
Dissatisfaction with the shameful peace of Tilsit and the foreign policy of the emperor was hovering in society. Alexander Pavlovich spoke about his real attitude to the events only with the closest people.
Since 1808, Alexander undertook the restructuring of the Russian army. He seriously feared war. Barclay de Tolly and Arakcheev helped him reform the army. The size of the army by 1811 reached 225 thousand people.
In the spring of 1812, Napoleon was already openly threatening Russia. He sent provocative messages to the emperor to unbalance him, but Alexander did not respond to provocations. He vowed to make no more "shameful peace."
When the Russian troops left Moscow, there were courtiers who urged the emperor to go to peace negotiations, but the emperor was firm. Neither in June nor in August 1812 did he respond to Napoleon's requests for peace negotiations. In the confrontation with Napoleon, he behaved like an imperious, far-sighted and strong ruler.
He was shocked by the fire of Moscow and in desperation then turned to the Almighty for help. It seemed to Alexander that God had heard his prayer. He did not agree to negotiate with Napoleon. December 1812 arrived. The alignment of forces was not in favor of the French. After the battle of Borodino, the conquering army no longer had victories and, retreating across the Russian land devastated by it, looked deplorable. Field Marshal Kutuzov had no intention of pursuing the French outside of Russia, but Alexander thought otherwise. He wanted to free all of Europe from the tyrant.
In a foreign campaign, Alexander was constantly with the army.
Alexander brought the Russian army to Paris. On April 6, 1814, Napoleon signed his abdication and was sent to the island of Elba. The final downfall of Napoleon occurred at the Battle of Waterloo. June 18, 1815, after which the tyrant was exiled to St. Helena.
After the fall of Napoleon, the mood of the emperor changed.
Projects for the liberation of the peasants were not adopted and other constitutional reforms that had previously been approved by the emperor were not carried out.
Alexander was struck by the betrayal of his former allies, England and Austria, who tried to deprive Russia of influence in Europe. Russia was ignored, as if there was no victorious march of the Russian army across Europe. Alexander proposed the idea of ​​creating a Holy Union of all the Christian peoples of Europe. He wrote the basic provisions of the treaty of alliance and presented it to the rulers of the European countries. It was signed by France, Austria, Prussia and Russia.
Alexander believed in the principles of goodness on which the union was based.
The Emperor's illusions were shattered. Fear returned to him, he was afraid of conspirators who could oppose him.
In the role of emperor, he sometimes showed cruelty, suppressed the uprising of soldiers
Semyonovsky regiment. However, as a person, Alexander was a humanist. He knew that the idea of ​​a regicide was brewing in the secret societies. He knew that he was in real danger. Alexander left the conspirators free, but in 1822 he banned the existence of Masonic lodges and secret societies in Russia.
He began to move away from the reality that frightened him.
In the autumn of 1825, Alexander undertook a trip to the Crimea, and during his journey in the small town of Taganrog he fell seriously ill, and a few days later, on November 19, 1825, he died.
The sudden death of the Emperor shocked everyone. He was a healthy and physically strong man, in his 48 years he had never been seriously ill.
After his death, there was an uprising on December 14, 1825, the death of Alexander's wife1 disturbed the people and gave rise to many rumors and conjectures.
The coffin with the body was displayed with the lid closed. No one saw the face of the deceased. By order of Nikolai Pavlovich, who took the reins of government into his own hands, the coffin was opened only at night for relatives and friends.
Alexandra.
Rumors that another person was buried instead of the emperor. The people remembered how the emperor said that he wanted to abdicate the throne. He felt guilty for his father's death. He prepared a manifesto and gave an envelope with documents for safekeeping to the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. Copies sent to the State Council, Senate and Synod. On the envelope was the inscription: "Keep until my demand."
And this meant only one thing - the intention of Alexander to abdicate the throne. Only three people knew about the contents of the manifesto: Golitsyn, Arakcheev and Metropolitan Filaret.
The death of the emperor remained a mystery to everyone.
In the 30s and 40s of the 19th century, rumors that Alexander was alive again found ground. They went from Siberia, where in 1836 a certain old man appeared
Fyodor Kuzmich, who amazed everyone with his sedateness, majesty and ability to speak. Everything betrayed in him an educated, well-mannered and pious person.
He was well informed about the war of 1812, talked about the presence of Russian troops in Paris, he helped people, taught children to read and write, but he never mentioned the name of Pavel1 in a conversation and did not support a conversation about
Alexandra Pavlovich.
The elder died on January 20, 1864 at the age of 87 in a solitary cell not far from Tomsk. He was buried in the cemetery of the Tomsk Bogoroditse-Alekseevsky Monastery. His grave became a place of pilgrimage, where representatives of the royal family also visited.
The version of Alexander's departure from worldly life has many supporters, but there are also opponents based on the emperor's medical history in
Taganrog, certificate of his death, act, autopsy.
Perhaps, over time, in this mysterious story, new researchers will put an end to and answer numerous questions related to the life and death of Emperor Alexander1. His drama consisted in the fact that he tried to combine a person and a ruler in himself.

Board milestones
1801 - Decree allowing serfs to buy land.
1803 - decree on the redemption of villages along with the land.
1805 - the defeat of the Russian army at Austerlitz.
1808 - the beginning of the reform of the Russian army.
1810 - publication of "Introduction to the Code of State Laws".
1811 - creation of the State Council under the emperor.
1812-Patriotic war.
1821-creation of secret societies in Russia.
1822 - refusal of Konstantin Pavlovich from the throne.
1823 - writing a special manifesto on the transfer of power to Nikolai Pavlovich.

The material is used according to the book: "Encyclopedia of kings and emperors".