Comparative characteristics of birds and mammals. Structural features of birds, fish and mammals 3 comparative analysis of the organization of birds and mammals

Ural State Academy of Veterinary Medicine

Test

subject: Anatomy and physiology

On the topic: Features of the structure of birds, fish and mammals Student gr. 51 “Z” correspondence department of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine

Troitsk, 2009

The classes of birds and mammals, which are the pinnacle of vertebrate evolution, arose independently of each other. Already in the Triassic, the first primitive mammals separated from the beast-toothed lizards. At the end of the Triassic - beginning of the Jurassic, flying dinosaurs appeared. Bird lizards (Archaeopteryx) gave rise to birds.

The first mammals and the first birds inhabited areas of land undeveloped by reptiles, which contributed to the emergence of adaptations to more diverse environmental conditions. And the presence of competitors such as giant lizards contributed to the improvement of the nervous system, sensory organs and behavior.

The change in living conditions on Earth - the cooling that occurred at the end of the Mesozoic - revealed the advantages of warm-blooded animals - birds and mammals, which began to dominate in different habitats - on land, in water, in the air. The simultaneous appearance of warm-bloodedness in these classes can be considered as a sign of convergence that arose under similar environmental conditions.

The Cenozoic era is the era of the dominance of birds, mammals, insects and angiosperms, which are not only connected in the food chain, but also mutually determine the conditions of life, reproduction, and distribution for each other.

In connection with the mastery of the air environment by birds, they have developed a number of characteristics adaptive to flight - idioadaptations.

Birds are divided into 3 subclasses: ostriches, penguins and flying birds.

Body structure. The body is divided into head, neck, trunk and tail. The forelimbs are wings, the hind limbs are legs. On the head is a beak consisting of a mandible and a mandible. The legs are four-toed.

Cover. An individual feature of bird cover is its plumage. Birds have different types of feathers on their skin. Based on their structure, they distinguish between contour feathers, down feathers, down, filamentous feathers, and bristles.

The skin of birds is thin, dry, does not have skin glands distributed over the entire surface of the body, and has (and in some birds does not have) only the coccygeal gland, located above the caudal vertebrae, which produces a fat-like secretion.

Birds use the secretion of the coccygeal gland to process feathers. In this case, the birds have to squeeze the secretion out of the gland with their beak and distribute it over the feathers. This probably helps preserve the properties of the pen. However, the secretion of the coccygeal gland contains provitamin D, which is converted into vitamin D itself under the influence of ultraviolet radiation. When a bird straightens its feathers, it removes the secretion it had previously applied and swallows it. In addition to the secretion of the coccygeal gland, for the care of feathers in birds, there is the so-called powder, which is small horny plates that appear in various birds either as growing feathers or a special type of down. The bird's powder is also distributed over the feathers. Birds that lack the coccygeal gland usually have well-developed powder thecae. In addition to their own adaptations, many birds resort to swimming, both in water and in wet grass, fog, sand and dust. And, of course, birds simply clean and straighten their feathers with their beaks to preserve their structure. Feathers gradually wear out and are replaced. Molting occurs differently in different birds.

Skeleton. Consists of the skull, spine, girdle of the fore and hind limbs, and free limbs. The skull includes the skull, eye sockets, upper and lower jaws (the base of the beak). The spine is divided into five sections: cervical (11 movably connected vertebrae), thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal, fixedly connected. The chest is formed by five pairs of ribs, consisting of two parts, articulated movably. The sternum below has a high ridge - the keel. The girdle of the forelimbs is represented by paired bones - scapulae, clavicles and crow bones. The collarbones form a fork. The wing skeleton consists of the humerus, ulna and radius bones, and the bones of the three-fingered hand. The bones of the hind limb girdle are paired pelvic bones, fused with the lumbar and sacral spine and the first caudal vertebrae. The leg consists of the femur, fused tibia and fibula, tarsus (fused bones of the foot) and four toes; Bones are hollow and contain air.

The paired pectoralis major, attached to the sternum and its keel, serve to lower the wing, the subclavian muscles - to raise the wing. The muscles of the legs, neck, and intercostal muscles are well developed. In well-flying birds, the large pectoral muscles reach 15-20% of the body weight, so this location of the muscles (closer to the center of gravity) contributes to the bird’s stability in the air.

Digestive system.

The beak is a toothless jaw covered with horny cover. In terms of digestion, the beak is used for swallowing food, but otherwise it is the bird’s main tool, serving for absolutely everything, from building a nest to helping with locomotion. Beak shapes are very different for birds with different types of food and different living conditions. The tongue is spear-shaped, suspended by muscles in the area of ​​the jaw joint, so that even with the beak wide open, the bird can press food (prey) to the palate. Not all birds have a sublingual pouch; the rook and nutcracker have it among the ravens. The sac is located in front of the tongue, serves as a reservoir for food, and is emptied with the help of the tongue. The esophagus in birds is long, and in some species it has a local expansion - a goiter. The stomach in birds is divided into two sections, pyloric and cardiac. The pyloric section has powerful muscles and is used for mechanical processing of food, and for grinding gastroliths are usually needed - small pebbles swallowed by the bird. The cardiac region is rich in glands that secrete gastric juice; chemical processing of food occurs here. The intestines are thin and thick - in the intestines, food is digested (due to pancreatic enzymes in the presence of bile) and the absorption of digestive products, as well as the processing of food by the microflora that populates the intestines. In birds, the colon and rectum are short, the cecum is paired, sometimes very elongated (mainly in granivorous birds). Digestion in birds occurs quickly; plant proteins, which are abundant in plant seeds, take longer to digest. Plant fruits and animal food are digested faster. In passerine birds, berries pass through the gastrointestinal tract in 8-10 minutes; in the stomach of a duck, fish scales are broken down in 10-15 minutes; in a chicken, grains are broken down in 12-24 hours. Birds have a high need for food due to their rapid metabolism and the lack of significant reserves of energy-valuable substances in the body, so starvation is extremely dangerous for birds. In the poem, birds are almost never full; the bird will always eat more than the required minimum, if there is such an opportunity, which usually happens. Small birds eat a relatively larger amount of food (up to 1/4 of their body weight) than large birds (up to 1/10 of their weight).

Respiratory system.

The respiratory system of birds, if not the most perfect, is the most complex among vertebrates. In the respiratory tract, the dead volume is limited only by the trachea, and the air moves through the lungs in only one direction, and the air completes a full cycle in two pairs of respiratory movements (inhale-exhale-inhale-exhale), the so-called double breathing.

The respiratory tract of birds begins with the nostrils, continues into the nasal cavity and the upper larynx, the larynx is followed by the trachea, the length and number of cartilaginous rings in which vary greatly in different birds, then at the place where the trachea branches into two bronchi there is the lower larynx of birds (syrinx), which is the main vocal apparatus of birds. The bronchi, having entered the lung, give off secondary bronchi, which partially extend beyond the lung and form air sacs located in various parts of the bird’s body. The secondary bronchi communicate with each other through numerous parabronchi, intertwined with a network of blood capillaries. Air sacs are several times larger than lungs in volume. Air sacs are located between internal organs, between muscles, under the skin and communicate with some bone cavities. The bags do not take part in gas exchange; they perform many functions, among which the most important are providing ventilation and heat transfer.

Air bags are the only effective cooling system for birds. Being in the “hottest places”, between and around working muscles, in the abdominal cavity, etc., the air sacs are filled with air at ambient temperature (and given the high temperature in birds, which in different species ranges from 38› to 43 .5›C, the ambient temperature in most cases will be lower), and liquid evaporates from the walls of the bags, which helps to cool their walls, thus cooling the body. And in flight, when muscle work increases, and therefore heat production, the work of the heart increases and external respiration increases, increased breathing will contribute to intense heat transfer. They can also act as thermal insulators, preventing heat exchange between the tissues they share, in particular internal organs and integumentary tissues.

There are five pairs of air sacs and one unpaired one. They are also divided into front and rear. Anterior: cervical, interclavicular and prothoracic, posterior: metathoracic, abdominal and interclavicular (unpaired). The rear bags are larger than the front ones.

The main feature of bird breathing is the lungs, which cannot be stretched, enclosed in a rigid chest that does not change its volume. Therefore, the lungs are blown with air through the bronchial system, and air movement is ensured by a change in the volume of the respiratory sacs.

When inhaling, air through the trachea and primary bronchi enters predominantly into the posterior sacs, and when exhaling, it moves into the lungs. On the second inhalation, air from the lungs enters the anterior sacs, and on the second exhalation, it comes out.

It is noteworthy that no valves were found in the respiratory tract of birds, so all the bizarre movements of air occur according to the laws of hydrodynamics.

The intensity of gas exchange is facilitated by the presence of a countercurrent circulatory system in the lungs of birds, i.e. blood and air move in opposite directions, towards each other. Because of this, “fresher” portions of air come into contact with “more arterial” blood, which ensures efficient gas exchange.

Birds extract 40 ml of oxygen from 1 liter of air (mammals - 30 ml), while the oxygen tension in arterial blood is greater, and carbon dioxide is less than in exhaled air!

Let's try to show schematically how the counterflow system ensures such excellent gas exchange. The frequency of respiratory movements, like the heart rate, the greater, the smaller the mass of the bird. In a mallard duck at rest it is 10-16, in small passerines it is 60-100 breaths/min.

Circulatory system. The heart is four-chambered, consisting of the left and right atria and the left and right ventricles. The left half contains arterial blood, the right half contains venous blood. Two circles of blood circulation, completely isolated from each other, as a result of which the blood does not mix. The large circle begins from the left ventricle and ends in the right atrium, the small circle (pulmonary) begins in the right ventricle and ends in the left atrium. Blood vessels of the systemic circulation: aorta (right arch), arteries, capillaries, veins; small - pulmonary artery, capillaries, pulmonary vein.

Excretory system. Pelvic kidneys, ureters, cloaca. There is no bladder. Urine is very highly concentrated because the metabolism is increased. Urine is excreted along with feces (droppings).

Nervous system. It is represented by the brain and spinal cord and the nerves extending from them. In the brain, the cerebral hemispheres of the forebrain and the cerebellum are the most developed. Conditioned reflexes.

Sense organs.

Birds have well-developed vision. The total field of vision in birds is more than 300›, because the field of view of one eye is 150-170›, and the bird sees with each eye separately, and not with both eyes at once, due to their location. Birds have binocular vision (where the visual fields of both eyes coincide), but its field is relatively small - 20-30› (in humans - 150›). It has been experimentally established that a bird needs to look at an object with both eyes separately in order to properly examine and remember it. When a tit hiding food was covered with a cap over one eye, it could not then find its supplies.

Many species of birds have a high ability of the eye to accommodate (change the curvature of the icon and the depth of vision), for example, in a cormorant it is equal to 40-50 diopters (in humans - 14-15), but in some species (chickens, pigeons) it reaches only 8 -12 diopters.

In fast-flying birds (swallows, terns), the retina has not one (as in humans), but several zones of the most acute vision. Visual acuity in birds is 4-5 times higher than in humans. Birds of prey see even small prey from very long distances.

Reproduction. Females have only one left ovary and oviduct; males have paired bean-shaped testes, vas deferens and a seminal vesicle in the cloaca. There are no external genital organs: sperm pass from the male's cloaca to the female's cloaca upon contact. Fertilization takes place in the oviduct, after which the egg increases in size, is covered with membranes (yolk, albumen, two shells and a calcareous shell) and is released into the cloaca in the form of an egg. The process lasts 12-48 hours.

Development. It begins only as a result of warming the egg (incubation) from the germinal disc (zygote) located in the yolk. During the early stages of development, the embryo goes through the same stages as all chordates; it has gills and a tail. As development progresses, feather cover and a beak appear, and the tail disappears. With its beak, the chick breaks through the inner shells of the egg and breathes for the first time with its lungs in the air chamber. The chick's squeak is the beginning of pulmonary respiration. With a tubercle on its beak (an embryonic tooth), the chick breaks through the egg shell and emerges from it. The chicks are naked, helpless, there are usually two of them. Both parents take care of them; for feeding, “bird's milk” is produced in the crop, which is regurgitated into the beak of the chick. Later, the plant food softens in the crop. Type of development: nestling (nesting).

Fish are aquatic vertebrates that breathe through gills. The limbs look like fins. The body of most fish is covered with scales. Body temperature depends on the temperature of the surrounding water. The body shape is very diverse, but usually has a streamlined outline, which makes it easier for fish to move through water, a denser environment than air. The body is divided into head, trunk and tail. The movement of fish is carried out by bending the body and using fins. The fins are thin folds of skin supported by cartilaginous or bony rays. There are paired and unpaired fins. The first lie in the middle plane of the body - these are the caudal, dorsal (or dorsal) and anal fins. With the blows of the tail and caudal fin, the fish moves forward, and the dorsal and anal fins, like the keels of a boat, direct the movement of the body. The paired pectoral and ventral fins serve as depth rudders and help the fish change directions of movement.

The skin of fish is mucous, which reduces friction with the water. Most fish have skin covered with scales of different structures and shapes.

The nervous system is divided into central and peripheral. The central nervous system is formed by the brain and spinal cord. The brain consists of 5 sections: the forebrain with the olfactory nerves extending from it, the diencephalon, from which the optic nerves go to the eyes, the midbrain, the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata. Each department performs specific functions in the nervous activity of the animal. The forebrain does not form hemispheres. The peripheral nervous system consists of a branched system of nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord to all organs of the body.

Among the sense organs, fish have well-developed eyes, hearing aids, olfactory organs, and taste buds in the mouth. There is also a special sense organ - the lateral line. On the sides of the body there is a series of holes leading into a longitudinal channel lying in the skin. Its walls contain numerous nerve endings. Apparently, the lateral line organ perceives changes in pressure and movement of water.

The fish's mouth leads into the pharynx, in the side walls of which there is a series of gill slits. In most fish, the slits are separated by bony or cartilaginous gill arches, on which red thin gill filaments sit on the outside, and whitish gill rakers on the inside. The fish swallows water, which washes the petals of the gills and comes out. In this case, the oxygen contained in the water penetrates into the blood. The gill rakers form a filtering apparatus that prevents food swallowed by the fish from exiting through the gill slits. Food swallowed by fish passes through the esophagus into the stomach, where it is exposed to gastric juice and begins to be digested. Further digestion of food occurs in the intestines, digested food is absorbed by the intestinal walls, undigested food remains are thrown out through the anus.

Most fish have a swim bladder filled with a mixture of gases in their body cavity. By contracting and expanding, it changes the volume, and therefore the density of the animal, which is always equal to or very close to the density of the environment.

Circulatory system. There is only 1 circle of blood circulation. From the heart, which is made up of 2 sections - the atrium and the ventricle, venous blood flows to the gills, where it is enriched with oxygen and freed from carbon dioxide. From the gills, arterial blood spreads through the arteries throughout the body. Venous blood flows through the veins to the atrium.

Excretory organs. The excretory organs of fish are 2 kidneys, located under the spine in the body cavity. The urine they secrete flows down two ureters into the bladder or directly out.

Reproduction. Almost all fish are dioecious. In females, the body cavity contains an ovary, where eggs develop, and in males, there are testes, which produce a huge number of sperm. The vast majority of fish lay eggs, but there are some that will give birth to live young.

The class of fish is divided into a number of systematic groups:

cartilaginous fish. These include sharks and rays - marine fish with a cartilaginous skeleton. The body is covered with special scales with sharp teeth protruding outward. Caudal fin with large upper and small lobes. There is no operculum; the gill slits open on both sides of the body with separate openings. Sharks' jaws are armed with sharp teeth. Stingrays live at the bottom of the seas.

osteochondral fish. These include sturgeon, beluga, stellate sturgeon, sterlet and other sturgeon fish. The notochord lasts throughout life. The internal skeleton is cartilaginous, but the outside of the head is covered with flat bones. There is an operculum.

teleosts make up the main group of modern fish. They differ in that in adult individuals the notochord is preserved in separate sections between the vertebrae, the skeleton is mainly formed by numerous bones, and the scales look like thin plates overlapping each other.

Bony fish include carp, crucian carp, roach, bream, perch, pike, ruffe, catfish, pike perch, etc.

MAMMALS

Distinctive features of the class of mammals (animals) are viviparity, the presence of mammary glands that produce milk for feeding young, division of the body cavity into thoracic and abdominal by the diaphragm, as well as warm-bloodedness. The most important feature of this class is the development of higher nervous activity. The pinnacle of mammalian evolution is the genus man and the species Homo sapiens. The historical development of mammals went in three directions: oviparous mammals, marsupial mammals and placental mammals. Only representatives of placentals - higher mammals, who give birth to developed young - won the struggle for existence.

Oviparous and marsupials on all continents of the world, except Australia, were subjected to natural selection and became extinct.

Skin covering. The skin of mammals is thicker and denser than that of birds. The majority of the body surface is covered with hair, which plays a huge role in thermoregulation. Mammal hair is divided into 2 categories: coarse, thick, long - axial and delicate, thin, shorter - downy. Downy ones retain warm air, axial ones protect the skin and downy ones from mechanical damage. The skin contains sebaceous and sweat glands.

Skeleton. The skeleton of mammals is divided into the skull (consists of the braincase and the facial part), the spine (consists of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal sections), the skeleton of the limb girdles and the bones of the limbs themselves.

Musculature. The musculature of mammals is made up of a large number of muscles.

Brain. It has the same sections as the brain of other vertebrates, but is distinguished by its large size and very complex structure of the forebrain hemispheres. The sense organs of mammals are also more complex and sophisticated.

Mammals are characterized by the division of the body cavity into the thoracic and abdominal cavities by the diaphragm.

Digestive organs. The digestive tract begins with the oral cavity, which contains the tongue and teeth, which vary in size, shape and function. From the mouth, food travels through the esophagus into the stomach. The structure of the stomach depends on their nutrition. (for example, in ruminants it is divided into 4 sections). The walls of the stomach secrete gastric juice. From the stomach, food passes into the duodenum, into which the ducts of the liver and pancreas open. Intensive digestion and absorption of food occurs in the intestines. In mammals, the intestine is divided into small and large.

Respiratory system. They have a number of features. The structure of the lungs is alveolar; The bronchi that carry air to the lungs branch into them and end in the alveoli, where gas exchange occurs.

Circulatory system. Forms a large and small circle of blood circulation. The heart has four chambers: 2 atria and 2 ventricles. Body temperature is constant.

Excretory organs. They are 2 kidneys, from which ureters extend, opening into the bladder.

Reproduction. All mammals are dioecious. The eggs are fertilized inside the female's body. The vast majority of animals give birth to live young; only Australian platypuses lay eggs. The cubs are fed milk.

The class of mammals is divided into 3 subclasses:

oviparous (platypuses and echidnas),

marsupials (kangaroos),

placental (most mammals belong to this subclass).

Placentals are divided into a number of orders:

insectivores (hedgehogs, moles, shrews),

bats (bats),

predatory (wolves, foxes, arctic foxes, dogs, lions, tigers, leopards, lynxes, wild and domestic cats, sables, martens, ferrets, minks, otters, stoats, weasels, hyenas, bears),

pinnipeds (seals, fur seals, walruses, sea lions),

cetaceans (whales and dolphins),

rodents (squirrels, gophers, marmots, dormouse, jerboas, beavers, hamsters, voles, mice, rats),

lagomorphs (hares, rabbits, pikas),

artiodactyls (Bulls, mountain goats and rams, antelopes, deer, camels, wild boars, hippopotamuses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, reindeer, camels)

odd-toed ungulates (horses, zebras, donkeys, rhinoceroses)

proboscis (elephants)

primates (monkeys).

With previous classes of animals. 10) The nervous system of birds compared to the nervous system of reptiles has become significantly more complex. The high development of the central nervous system is due to the more complex behavior of birds. It manifests itself in various forms of care for offspring (nest building, laying and incubating eggs, warming chicks, feeding them), in seasonal movements, in the development of sound...

Reproduction. In most cases, it is carried out by fusion (copulation) of a microgamete with a macrogamete. In ciliates, the sexual process occurs in the form of conjugation. In protozoa, which arose as a result of different methods of reproduction, the structure differs to some extent from the parental forms and not all organelles are present in the required quantity (for example, from two contractile vacuoles it can...

Formed state, which is ensured by significant changes in the embryonic membranes, as well as the reproductive apparatus and the entire maternal body. Rice. 6. Development of the embryonic membranes and placenta in mammals (/-VI- sequential stages): /-extraembryonic secondary cavity, 2-allantois, 3 - amnion, 4-yolk sac, 5 - embryo; a - ectoderm, b - endoderm, c - mesoderm U...

It is, of course, possible for this form to nest on the ground and raise the brood there, but this practically removes for a long period (more than a month) all the adaptive advantages of gliding flight among the branches. If we accept the hypothesis of the origin of flight from gliding, the high proportion of semi-aquatic and aquatic forms in the “primitive” orders of birds, the absence of tree-climbing forms among them, ...

№	FEATURES	BIRDS CLASS (Aves) Swans, vultures, bustards, pelicans, penguins	CLASS MAMMALS (Mammalia) Squirrel, giraffe, jerboa, savannah elephant, blue whale, shrew.
	Number of species	9 000	4 500
	Body measurements	From 2.8 cm (bumblebee hummingbird) to a height of 2.8 m and a weight of 150 kg (African ostrich)	From 3.5 cm, 1.5 g (pygmy shrew) to 33.3 m, 165 t (blue whale)
	Cover thickness	Skin is thin	The skin is thick
	Glands	Absent (coccygeal gland present)	There are sweat, sebaceous, odorous and mammary glands
	Epidermal derivatives	Body covered with feathers	Body covered with hair
	Features of the skeleton structure	Lightness and strength, bone growth (for example, in the skull)	Skull with large brain volume
	Beak	Eat	Absent
	Cervical vertebrae	Quantity varies, extremely mobile	Quantity is usually 7
	Vertebral growth	Observed (complex sacrum)	Absent
	Keel	Eat	Absent
	Diaphragm	Absent	Eat
	Lips	None	Eat
	Teeth	None	Differentiated
	Oral cavity	There is no mechanical processing of food	Mechanical processing of food occurs
	Rectum	Absent	Eat
	Airways	Nostrils, nasal cavity, upper larynx, trachea with vocal apparatus in the lower larynx, bronchi	Nostrils, nasal cavity, larynx with vocal cords, trachea, bronchi
	Lungs	Relatively smaller, fused with the inner walls of the chest	Relatively large, do not fuse with the inner walls of the chest, but are covered with pleura
	Parabronchi	Eat	None
	Air bags	Eat	None
	Breathing type	Double	Ordinary
	Total blood volume	Up to 9% body weight	Up to 9.5% body weight
	Red blood cells	They have a nucleus, blood content is 3,500,000 million/mm	Nuclear-free, blood content is about 8.5 million/mm3
	Blood oxygen capacity	Up to 22%	Up to 24%
	Aortic arches	There is a right aortic arch, the left one is reduced	There is a left aortic arch, the right aortic arch is reduced
	Body temperature	40-42 °C	32-38 °C
	Cloaca	Eat	Absent
	Urinary tract	Absent	Eat
	Bladder	Absent	Eat
	End product of protein metabolism	Insoluble uric acid	Urea
	Accommodation	By moving the lens and changing its curvature	By changing the curvature of the lens
	Ears	Absent	Eat
	Auditory ossicles	Stapes	Hammer, anvil, stapes
	spiral organ	Absent	Eat
	Female reproductive system	Asymmetric (there is only the left ovary and left oviduct)	Symmetrical (paired ovaries and oviducts)
	Development of the embryo	Outside the mother's body (lay eggs)	In the body, in the uterus, where the placenta forms
	Live birth	Absent	Characteristic
	Feeding children with milk	Absent	Observed

Describe livestock farming and indicate its main branches.

Livestock- the second most important (after crop production) sector of Russian agriculture. The well-being of the country as a whole largely depends on how well it is developed. Until recently, livestock farming in Russia was considered unprofitable. Today, thanks to the introduction of new technologies into production, the situation has changed significantly for the better. Livestock farming is divided into several important branches and types.

Branches There are many agricultural breeds. Almost each of them has its own livestock sector. The most significant in our country are: Pig farming. The main products of this livestock industry are meat and lard. Horse breeding. Both breeding of horses, as well as productive and sports breeding, are of great importance for the national economy. Cattle breeding. Cattle breeding is currently the main branch of livestock farming. After all, the degree to which the population will be provided with basic food products, such as milk and meat, depends on how developed this area is. Raising small livestock is also very important. Such areas of the national economy as food (meat, milk) and light (woolen clothing and household items) industries are directly dependent on this area of ​​animal husbandry. Poultry farming. This industry is responsible for providing the population with such important food products as eggs, meat, down and feathers. Fur farming. Breeding nutria, minks, arctic foxes, etc. makes it possible to obtain skins for sewing outerwear, hats, accessories, and other things. Beekeeping. Honey, wax, royal jelly are also more than necessary products. These are the main livestock sectors. In addition to them, our country also has developed reindeer husbandry, fish farming, and camel breeding.

37.When studying the Earth

and its individual parts, geoimages are used - spatiotemporal models of the earth's surface. The need to determine the location of objects on Earth gave rise to the drawing up of maps and plans, the appearance of globes with their special, symbolic language, and the production of aerial photographs and space images. A variety of geoimages allow you to look at the earth's surface from above and imagine the relative position of natural and man-made objects.

A three-dimensional cartographic model of the Earth is a globe, which helps to visualize the position of the planet in space. The first globe was made by the Flemish cartographer Gerardus Mercator in 1490. A geographic globe (from the Latin globe - ball) is a reduced model of the Earth, reflecting its spherical shape. The advantages of the globe are clarity, lack of distortion of the cartographic image, and the ability to demonstrate the axial rotation of the Earth.

1. Similarities and differences between a plan and a geographical map. First, let’s find out the similarity between a local plan and a geographic map. It is known that both a plan and a map are a reduced schematic representation of the Earth’s surface on paper (a plane).

On them, objects of the earth's surface are reduced in scale. Instead of their specific forms, conventional signs are used. Along with such general similarities, there are noticeable differences between a plan and a geographical map. The main ones are the following:

1) scale difference. The plan is drawn on a large scale: 1 cm-5 m, 1 cm-10 m, etc. Due to the large scale, objects on the earth's surface are shown in great detail on the plan. On it you can distinguish individual blocks of the settlement, houses, schools, mosques, palaces of culture, etc. You can draw a plan of the school yard and even a plan of your room if you like.
A geographical map covers large territories - a region, a state, a continent, even the entire globe. Therefore, it is drawn on a small scale. On it, the Earth's surface is reduced by several million times. In terms of completeness and accuracy of the image, only topographic maps are close to plans;
2) regardless of the size of the territory covered Meridians and parallels must be shown on the map(remember how they look in various maps). Meridians show the direction north-south, parallels - west-east. There are no such lines on the plan. The upper part of the plan corresponds to the north, the lower to the south, the left to the west, and the right to the east;
3) the plan covers small areas of land. Therefore, it does not take into account the convexity of the globe and assumes that the earth is flat. Measurement work can be carried out on any part of the plan. The map covers large areas or even the entire globe, Therefore, the spherical shape of the Earth is taken into account here. And depending on the size of the depicted territory, the degree of distortion of the map increases (remember the distortions on the world map and the map of the hemispheres);
4) difference in symbols. If on a plan it is possible to determine the exact dimensions of many objects using conventional signs (the length of a road and river, the area of ​​a lake or garden, etc.), then this is impossible on a map. For example, on a plan it is easy to determine the shape of a settlement, the direction of streets, etc. The map only marks their location.

The soil

This is a special natural body formed on the surface of the Earth as a result of the interaction of living (organic) and dead (inorganic) nature. The most important property of soil, which distinguishes it from rocks, is fertility. It is caused by the presence of organic matter, humus, or humus, in soils.

Main soil types in Russia:

1. Tundra gley soils are found on plains. They are formed without much influence from vegetation. These soils are found in areas where there is permafrost (in the Northern Hemisphere). Often, gley soils are places where deer live and feed in summer and winter. An example of tundra soils in Russia is Chukotka. In areas with such soils, people engage in farming. Potatoes, vegetables and various herbs grow on such land.

2. Arctic soils are obtained as a result of thawing of permafrost. This soil is quite thin. The maximum layer of humus (fertile layer) is 1-2 cm. This type of soil has a low acidic environment. This soil cannot be restored due to the harsh climate. These soils are common in Russia only in the Arctic (on a number of islands in the Arctic Ocean). Due to the harsh climate and small layer of humus, nothing grows on such soils.

3.Podzolic soils are common in forests. There is only 1-4% humus in the soil. Podzolic soils are obtained through the process of podzol formation. A reaction occurs with the acid. That is why this type of soil is also called acidic. In Russia, podzolic soils are common in Siberia and the Far East.

Soddy-podzolic soils are a subtype of podzolic soils. In composition they are largely similar to podzolic soils. A characteristic feature of these soils is that they can be washed out more slowly by water, unlike podzolic soils. Soddy-podzolic soils are found mainly in the taiga (the territory of Siberia). This soil contains up to 10% fertile layer on the surface, and at depth the layer sharply decreases to 0.5%.

Permafrost-taiga soils were formed in forests under permafrost conditions. They are found only in continental climates. The greatest depths of these soils do not exceed 1 meter. This is caused by the proximity to the surface of permafrost. The humus content is only 3-10%.

4. Gray forest soils are formed in forest areas. A prerequisite for the formation of such soils is the presence of a continental climate. Deciduous forest and herbaceous vegetation. The places of formation contain an element necessary for such soil - calcium. Thanks to this element, water does not penetrate deep into the soil and does not erode them. These soils are gray in color. The humus content in gray forest soils is 2-8 percent, that is, the soil fertility is average.

Light gray

Dark gray. (These soils predominate in Russia in the territory from Transbaikalia to the Carpathian Mountains. Fruit and grain crops are grown on the soils

5.Brown forest soils are common in forests: mixed, coniferous and broad-leaved. These soils are found only in warm temperate climates. The soil color is brown. Typically brown soils look like this: on the surface of the ground there is a layer of fallen leaves, about 5 cm high. Next comes the fertile layer, which is 20 and sometimes 30 cm. Even lower is a layer of clay of 15-40 cm. There are several subtypes of brown soils. Subtypes vary depending on temperatures. There are: typical, podzolized, gley (superficial gley and pseudopodzolic). On the territory of the Russian Federation, soils are distributed in the Far East and in the foothills of the Caucasus. Low-maintenance crops such as tea, grapes and tobacco are grown on these soils. Forests grow well on such soils.

6. Chestnut soils are common in steppes and semi-deserts. The fertile layer of such soils is 1.5-4.5%. Which indicates average soil fertility. This soil has chestnut, light chestnut and dark chestnut colors. Accordingly, there are three subtypes of chestnut soil, differing in color.

In light chestnut soils, farming is possible only with abundant watering. The main purpose of this land is pasture.

The following crops grow well in dark chestnut soils without watering: wheat, barley, oats, sunflower, millet.

Birds and mammals have common roots - the class Reptiles, but due to a number of morphological and anatomical differences, these animals were able to master different living spaces.

Birds is a biological taxon, class. They belong to the phylum Chordata, the Animal kingdom. Typical representatives of the class include the crow, chicken, sparrow, penguin or peacock. More details http://pedagogru.ru
Mammals is a biological taxon. Class Mammals belong to the phylum Chordata, kingdom Animalia. Typical representatives of the class are hares, lions, cows, dolphins and walruses.

Comparison of birds and mammals

What is the difference between birds and mammals? Birds have a number of characteristic features that allowed them to be combined into one taxon. These are vertebrates, like fish and four-legged animals. They are warm-blooded, like mammals, and oviparous, like reptiles. A unique feature of these animals is the adaptation of the body to flight: it is covered with feathers, the upper limbs are modified into wings. A separate “pride” of birds is their beak, which is not found in any other species of Chordata.
All mammals have a number of characteristics that make it possible to distinguish them into one class. The primal beasts, platypuses and echidnas, “lag behind” a little in certain indicators from their colleagues. But if you don’t go back to echidnas and platypuses every time, then all mammals are warm-blooded. Just like the birds. Most mammals are covered with fur or hair. They engage in viviparity and feed their young with milk using modified sweat glands.
The anatomical structure of birds is adapted to their ability to fly. Even those birds that do not fly today once had this ability. Or rather, not them, but their distant ancestors. The anatomical structure of a mammal depends on the environment in which it lives.
The bird skeleton is simplified, strengthened and lightweight. The bones of the skull are fused. They do not have prominent cranial sutures. The spine has four sections, three of which are fused. The neck of birds is long and mobile. The belt of the forelimbs changed into wings, and some of them underwent reduction and fusion. Only birds have a keel linked to the ribs.
The skeleton of a mammal is represented by five sections (only cetaceans do not have a sacrum). The skull of these animals is large, its bones are fused, forming protection for the developed brain.
In the digestive system of birds, there is a lack of teeth, an underdeveloped rectum and a high rate of metabolic processes.
The respiratory system of a bird is adapted to increased gas exchange. In addition to lungs, they have pulmonary sacs, thanks to which birds have “double breathing.” In mammals, the respiratory system is represented by lungs with bronchi. The diaphragm is involved in the breathing process.
The circulatory system of a bird is represented by two circles of blood circulation and a four-chambered heart. The pulse of a bird in flight can reach a thousand (!) beats per minute. Mammals also have two circles of blood circulation and a four-chambered heart, but only their blood contains nuclear-free, highly specialized cells - erythrocytes.
Birds have well-developed vision, but not a developed sense of smell. They don't smell. Some birds have intelligence. Animals have developed all senses and intellectual abilities.
About 9,800 species of birds live on Earth. They inhabit all continents and parts of the world, except for the central part of Antarctica. There are about 5,000 species of mammals on the planet. They are distributed in all parts of the world except the interior of Antarctica, deep ocean trenches and airspace.

TheDifference.ru determined that the difference between birds and mammals is as follows:

Most birds are adapted to fly, unlike most animals. Only birds have wings.
Birds are oviparous, animals are viviparous, except for the first animals.
Birds are covered with feathers, animals are covered with fur.
The number of bird species exceeds the number of mammal species.
Unlike birds, mammals feed their young with milk produced by the mammary glands of females.
Birds lack teeth; animals have them and are highly differentiated.
Birds have four sections of the spine, mammals have five.
The respiratory system of birds has lungs and a pulmonary sac, allowing for “double breathing”. In mammals, breathing is carried out by the lungs with the bronchi using the diaphragm.
The pulse rate of a bird exceeds the pulse rate of a mammal, but only mammals have nuclear-free red blood cells “working” in their blood.
In addition to those systems that facilitate flight, birds have a lower level of organization of organ systems than mammals.

Tests

701-01. Ambient temperature significantly affects body temperature
A) shrimp
B) sparrow
B) dolphin
D) penguin

Answer

701-02. The terrarium with the turtle was taken out into a cool room. As a result, her metabolism
A) became more intense
B) decreased
B) remained unchanged
D) stopped

Answer

701-03. Mammals inhabited areas inaccessible to reptiles, as they are characterized by
A) unstable body temperature and dry skin without glands
B) the presence of digestive, circulatory and other organ systems
B) warm-blooded and high metabolic rate
D) internal skeleton and central nervous system in the form of a tube

Answer

701-04. In which group of animals does the body temperature depend on the ambient temperature?
A) marsupial mammals
B) placental mammals
B) reptiles
D) birds

Answer

701-05. The ability to maintain a constant body temperature was formed in the process of evolution in
A) cartilaginous and bony fish
B) amphibians and reptiles
B) birds and mammals
D) insects and cephalopods

Answer

701-06. The most important feature that distinguishes birds from reptiles is
A) closed circulatory system
B) warm-blooded
B) pulmonary breathing
D) development on land

Answer

701-07. How are mammals and birds similar?
A) outer covering of the body
B) warm-blooded
B) the presence of a bladder
D) reproduction

Answer

701-07. Which of the following animals are warm-blooded?
A) crocodile
B) sheep
B) butterfly
D) frog

Answer

701-08. Which of the following groups of animals are warm-blooded?
A) Bony fish
B) Amphibians
B) Reptiles
D) Birds

Answer

701-09. Mammals and birds eat more than other vertebrates because they
A) larger in size
B) spend energy on thermoregulation
C) store nutrients for the winter
D) more fertile

Answer

701-10. As the ambient temperature increases, the metabolic rate of freshwater fish
A) increases
B) varies depending on their size
B) decreases
D) does not change

1. Bird class. General characteristics.

Due to the fact that they spend a significant part of their lives in the air, birds have developed some features. Their hollow bones are filled with air, which allows them to lighten their body weight. Flying species have a well-developed sternum - a keel, to which powerful muscles are attached. These are warm-blooded animals with an intense metabolism. Body temperature reaches 42 °C. The respiratory system, in addition to well-developed cellular lungs, is also represented by air sacs, which allow the lungs to be ventilated during inhalation and exhalation (double breathing). When you inhale, air enters the lungs and pulmonary sacs. When you exhale, the wings lower, squeezing the bags, and the air passes through the lungs a second time. This promotes better oxygen absorption and high metabolism. Birds have a four-chambered heart. Arterial and venous blood are completely separated. The digestive, excretory and reproductive systems of birds and reptiles are similar. Birds lack teeth, a bladder, and in females a second ovary and oviduct, which is associated with adaptation to flight.

Birds swallow their food whole and pass through the long esophagus into the crop, where it is first exposed to digestive juices. The stomach consists of two sections: glandular and muscular. Due to the large number of small stones swallowed with food, food is ground in the muscular section. The nervous system of birds is much better developed than that of reptiles, especially the forebrain and cerebellum. Therefore, the behavior of birds is more complex; they develop many conditioned reflexes.

Fertilization in birds is internal. The female lays eggs in built nests. They are characterized by incubating eggs and caring for offspring.

Birds are divided intobrood and nest (chicklings). In brood birds, the chicks hatch more adapted to life: they are sighted, covered with down, able to move and feed independently. These are chickens, ducks, geese, black grouse. They usually build nests on the ground.

In nesting birds, the chicks hatch helpless and blind, their body is not lowered, they are fed by their parents. These are crows, pigeons, starlings, woodpeckers, eagles, hawks and many others. They nest high in trees, in hollows, in burrows along river banks (swallows), on rocks, and in hard-to-reach places.

According to the method of feeding, birds are divided intoherbivorous (finches, siskins, crossbills, blackbirds),insectivores(woodpeckers, nuthatches, tits),predatory(falcons, hawks, eagles, owls). In addition, many aquatic birds feed on fish (ducks, penguins, herons, pelicans). Among the birds there arescavengers,that feed on animal carcasses, such as vultures.

All birds are divided into three large groups: ratites, swimmers (penguins) and keel-breasted birds.

2. Varieties of birds.

Ratites, or running, the birds live in Africa, Australia, and South America. This is the most primitive group: their sternum is flat, there is no keel, and the wings are poorly developed. These include African and American ostriches, emus and cassowaries that inhabit Australia. These are quite large birds, good runners, reaching a height 2.5 m . Emus and cassowaries have even more underdeveloped wings than ostriches, but have well-developed, strong legs. The smallest ratite birds are kiwis that inhabit the forests of New Zealand (height up to 55 cm ). Their wings are greatly reduced, almost disappeared, their legs are widely spaced, so they move slowly. In ratites, the eggs are usually incubated by the male.

Penguins - also flightless birds, but they have a keel on their sternum. The largest species - the emperor penguin reaches a height 1m . All penguins are excellent swimmers, their wings have turned into flippers, under water they “fly”, flapping their wings and steering with their legs, like other birds in the air, and on land they move awkwardly, waddling. Their feathers fit tightly together and are well lubricated with the fat of the coccygeal gland, which prevents them from getting wet.livepenguins on the coast of Antarctica, feed on fish, mollusks, and crustaceans. They nest on the ground. The eggs are incubated by the males, pinching them between their paws and lower abdomen. Females feed in the sea at this time. Towards the end of the development period before hatching, they return, nurse and feed the chicks.

Keelebreasts — the most common group of birds. They are divided into 34 squads. Most of them are flying. Depending on their habitat and nutrition, they can be divided into the following ecological groups: forest, steppe-desert, swamp-meadow, aquatic, landscape and carnivorous.

Forestbirds nest and feed in the forest, both in trees and in the lower tier, on the ground. These are woodpeckers, goldfinches, siskins, finches, finches, and birds of paradise that live in Australia. And also black grouse, wood grouse, partridges, pheasants living in forest clearings and edges.

TO swamp-meadowBirds include cranes, storks, waders, corncrakes, and herons. Birds of this group have long legs and feed on small animals. Birds of open spaces include larks, which soar high in the sky. But they nest and feed on insects on the ground.

Steppe-desert birds are usually good runners. Along with ostriches, these are bustards and runners.

To the group waterunite those birds, most of whose life is spent on the water. These are seagulls, ducks, geese, pelicans, swans, etc. They feed mainly on fish.

PredatoryBirds live everywhere and are divided into daytime and nighttime predators. Diurnal predators include hawks, falcons, eagles, buzzards, sea eagles, gyrfalcons, kestrels, and vultures. Nocturnal predators include owls and eagle owls.

Birds of great economic importance are chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys. Many of them serve as objects of fishing and hunting. Birds bring great benefits by destroying insect pests, especially during the period of feeding chicks.

3. Mammals. General characteristics.

Mammals - This is the most highly organized class of vertebrates. They are characterized by a highly developed nervous system (due to an increase in the volume of the cerebral hemispheres and the formation of the cortex); relatively constant body temperature; four-chambered heart; the presence of a diaphragm - a muscular septum separating the abdominal and thoracic cavities; development of young in the mother's body and feeding with milk. The body of mammals is often covered with fur. The mammary glands appear as modified sweat glands. The teeth of mammals are unique. They are differentiated, their number, shape and function vary significantly among different groups and serve as a systematic feature.

The body is divided into head, neck and torso. Many have a tail. Animals have the most perfect skeleton, the basis of which is the spinal column. It is divided into 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 6 lumbar, 3-4 fused sacral and caudal vertebrae, the number of the latter varies. Mammals have well-developed senses: smell, touch, vision, hearing. There is an auricle. The eyes are protected by two eyelids with eyelashes.

With the exception of oviparous mammals, all mammals bear their young inuterus -special muscular organ. The cubs are born alive and are fed milk. The offspring of mammals are in greater need of further care than other animals.

All of these characteristics allowed mammals to gain a dominant position in the animal world. They are found all over the globe.

The appearance of mammals is very diverse and is determined by their habitat: aquatic animals have a streamlined body shape, flippers or fins; land dwellers have well-developed limbs and a dense body. In the inhabitants of the air, the front pair of limbs are transformed into wings. A highly developed nervous system allows mammals to better adapt to environmental conditions and promotes the development of numerous conditioned reflexes.

The class of mammals is divided into three subclasses: oviparous, marsupials and placentals.

Oviparous, or perverted are the most primitive mammals. Unlike other representatives of this class, they lay eggs, but feed their young with milk. They still havecloaca -part of the intestine where three systems open - digestive, excretory and reproductive. Therefore they are also called monotremes. In other animals these systems are separated. Oviparous species are found only in Australia. These include only four species: echidnas (three species) and the platypus.

Marsupials Mammals are more highly organized, but they are also characterized by primitive features. They give birth to live, but underdeveloped young, practically embryos. These tiny cubs crawl into a pouch on the mother's belly, where, feeding on her milk, they complete their development.

Australia is home to kangaroos, marsupial mice, squirrels, anteaters (nambats), marsupial bears (koalas), and badgers (wombats). The most primitive marsupials live in Central and South America. This is an opossum, a marsupial wolf.

Placental animals have a well-developedplacenta- an organ attached to the wall of the uterus and performs the function of exchanging nutrients and oxygen between the mother’s body and the embryo.

Placental mammals are divided into 16 orders. These include Insectivores, Chiroptera, Rodents, Lagomorphs, Carnivores, Pinnipeds, Cetaceans, Ungulates, Proboscideans, and Primates.

Insectivoresmammals, which include moles, shrews, hedgehogs, etc., are considered the most primitive among placentals. These are quite small animals. The number of teeth they have is from 26 to 44, the teeth are undifferentiated.

Chiroptera -the only flying animals among animals. They are mainly crepuscular and nocturnal animals that feed on insects. These include fruit bats, bats, noctule bats, and vampires. Vampires are bloodsuckers; they feed on the blood of other animals. Bats have echolocation. Although their eyesight is poor, due to their well-developed hearing, they catch the echo of their own squeak reflected from objects,

Rodents -the most numerous order among mammals (about 40% all kinds of animals). These are rats, mice, squirrels, gophers, marmots, beavers, hamsters, and many others. A characteristic feature of rodents is their well-developed incisors. They have no roots, grow throughout their lives, wear down, and have no fangs. All rodents are herbivores.

Close to rodents squadlagomorphs..They have a similar tooth structure and also eat plant matter. These include hares and rabbits.predatorybelongs to more than 240 species of animals. Their incisors are poorly developed, but they have powerful fangs and carnassial teeth, which are used for tearing animal flesh. Predators feed on animal and mixed food. The order is divided into several families: canids (dog, wolf, fox), bears (polar bear, brown bear), felines (cat, tiger, lynx, lion, cheetah, panther), mustelids (marten, mink, sable, ferret) and etc. Some predators are characterized by hibernation (bears).

PinnipedsThey are also predatory animals. They have adapted to life in water and have specific features: the body is streamlined, the limbs are turned into flippers. The teeth are poorly developed, with the exception of the fangs, so they only grab food and swallow it without chewing. They are excellent swimmers and divers. They feed mainly on fish. They breed on land, along seashores or on ice floes. The order includes seals, walruses, fur seals, sea lions, etc.

To the squad cetaceansalso include inhabitants of the waters, but unlike pinnipeds, they never go onto land and give birth to their young in the water. Their limbs have turned into fins, and their body shape resembles fish. These animals mastered the water for the second time, and in connection with this they acquired many features characteristic of aquatic inhabitants. However, they retained the main features of the class. They breathe atmospheric oxygen through their lungs. Cetaceans include whales and dolphins. The blue whale is the largest of all modern animals (length 30 m, weight up to 150 t).

Ungulates are divided into two orders. TOequid include horses, tapirs, rhinoceroses, zebras, donkeys. Their hooves are modified middle toes, with the remaining toes reduced to varying degrees in different species. Ungulates have well-developed molars, as they feed on plant foods, chewing and grinding them.

U artiodactylsthe third and fourth toes are well developed, transformed into hooves, which bear the entire weight of the body. These are giraffes, deer, cows, goats, sheep. Many of them are ruminants and have a complex stomach.

To the squad proboscideabelong to the largest of land animals - elephants. They live only in Africa and Asia. The trunk is an elongated nose fused with the upper lip. Elephants do not have tusks, but their powerful incisors have turned into tusks. In addition, they have well-developed molars that grind plant foods. Elephants change these teeth 6 times during their life. Elephants are very voracious. One elephant can eat up to 200 kg of hay.

Primatescombine up to 190 species. All representatives are characterized by a five-fingered limb, grasping hands, and nails instead of claws. The eyes are directed forward (primates have developed binocular vision). These are inhabitants of tropical and subtropical forests, leading both arboreal and terrestrial lifestyles. They feed on plant and animal foods. The dental apparatus is more complete and differentiated into incisors, canines, and molars.

There are two groups: prosimians and monkeys. Prosimians include lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers. Monkeys are divided into broad-nosed (marmosets, howler monkeys, coetas) and narrow-nosed (macaques, monkeys, baboons, hamadryas). The group of higher narrow-nosed apes includes the gibbon, chimpanzee, gorilla, and orangutan. Humans also belong to the primates.