What is the charge of a proton in physics? Structure of an atom: nucleus, neutron, proton, electron. Examples of problem solving
This article, based on the etherodynamic essence of the electric charge and the structures of elementary particles, provides a calculation of the values of the electric charges of the proton, electron and photon.
False knowledge is more dangerous than ignorance
J.B. Shaw
Introduction. In modern physics, electric charge is one of the most important characteristics and an integral property of elementary particles. From the physical essence of the electric charge, defined on the basis of the etherodynamic concept, a number of properties follow, such as the proportionality of the magnitude of the electric charge to the mass of its carrier; electric charge is not quantized, but is transferred by quanta (particles); the magnitude of the electric charge has a definite sign, that is, it is always positive; which impose significant restrictions on the nature of elementary particles. Namely: in nature there are no elementary particles that do not have an electric charge; The magnitude of the electric charge of elementary particles is positive and greater than zero. Based on the physical essence, the magnitude of the electric charge is determined by the mass, the speed of the flow of the ether that makes up the structure of the elementary particle and their geometric parameters. The physical essence of electric charge ( electric charge is a measure of the flow of ether) unambiguously defines the etherodynamic model of elementary particles, thereby eliminating the question of the structure of elementary particles on the one hand and indicates the inconsistency of the standard, quark and other models of elementary particles on the other.
The magnitude of the electric charge also determines the intensity of the electromagnetic interaction of elementary particles. With the help of electromagnetic interaction, the interaction of protons and electrons in atoms and molecules occurs. Thus, electromagnetic interaction determines the possibility of a stable state of such microscopic systems. Their sizes are significantly determined by the magnitude of the electric charges of the electron and proton.
The erroneous interpretation of properties by modern physics, such as the existence of positive and negative, elementary, discrete, quantized electric charge, etc., incorrect interpretation of experiments on measuring the magnitude of electric charge led to a number of gross errors in elementary particle physics (structurelessness of the electron, zero mass and charge of a photon, existence of a neutrino, equality in absolute value of the electric charges of a proton and electron to an elementary one).
From the above it follows that the electric charge of elementary particles in modern physics is of decisive importance in understanding the foundations of the microcosm and requires a balanced and reasonable assessment of their values.
Under natural conditions, protons and electrons are in a bound state, forming proton-electron pairs. Misunderstanding of this circumstance, as well as the erroneous idea that the charges of an electron and a proton are equal in absolute value to the elementary ones, have left modern physics without an answer to the question: what is the real value of the electric charges of a proton, electron and photon?
Electric charge of a proton and electron. In its natural state, the proton-electron pair exists in the form of the chemical element hydrogen atom. According to the theory: “The hydrogen atom is an irreducible structural unit of matter, leading the periodic table of Mendeleev. In this regard, the radius of the hydrogen atom should be classified as a fundamental constant. ... The calculated Bohr radius is = 0.529 Å. This is important because there are no direct methods for measuring the radius of a hydrogen atom. ...the Bohr radius is the radius of the circle of the electron’s circular orbit, and it is defined in full accordance with the generally accepted understanding of the term “radius.”
It is also known that measurements of the proton radius were carried out using ordinary hydrogen atoms, which led (CODATA -2014) to a result of 0.8751 ± 0.0061 femtometers (1 fm = 10 −15 m).
To estimate the magnitude of the electric charge of a proton (electron), we use the general expression for electric charge:
q = (1/ k) 1/2 u r (ρ S) 1/2 , (1)
where k = 1 / 4πε 0 – proportionality coefficient from the expression of Coulomb’s law,
ε0 ≈ 8.85418781762039·10 −12 F m −1 – electrical constant; u – speed, ρ – ether flow density; S – cross section of the proton (electron) body.
Let us transform expression (1) as follows
q = (1/ k) 1/2 u r (mS/ V) 1/2 ,
Where V = r S – body volume, m — mass of an elementary particle.
A proton and an electron are duetons: - a structure consisting of two torus-shaped bodies connected by the lateral surfaces of the tori, symmetrical relative to the division plane, therefore
q = (1/ k) 1/2 u r (m2 S T/2 V T) 1/2 ,
Where S T– section, r- length, V T = r ST— volume of the torus.
q = (1/ k) 1/2 u r (mS T/ V T) 1/2 ,
q = (1/k) 1/2 u r (mS T /rS T) 1/2 ,
q = (1/ k) 1/2 u (mr) 1/2 . (2)
Expression (2) is a modification of expression (1) for the electric charge of a proton (electron).
Let R 2 = 0.2 R 1 , where R 1 is the outer and R 2 the inner radii of the torus.
r= 2π 0.6 R 1 ,
the electric charge of a proton and electron, respectively
q = ( 1/ k) 1/2 u (m 2π 0.6 R 1 ) 1/2 ,
q= (2π 0.6 / k) 1/2 u (m R 1 ) 1/2 ,
q= 2π ( 1.2 ε 0 ) 1/2 u (m R 1 ) 1/2
q = 2.19 π (ε 0 ) 1/2 u (m R 1 ) 1/2 (3)
Expression (3) is a form of expressing the magnitude of the electric charge for a proton and an electron.
At u = 3∙10 8 m / с – second sound speed of ether, expression 2.19 π (ε 0 ) 1/2 u = 2.19 π( 8.85418781762 10 −12 F/m ) 1/2 3∙10 8 m / c = 0.6142∙ 10 4 m 1/2 F 1/2 s -1 .
Let's assume that the radius of the proton (electron) in the structure presented above is the radius R 1 .
For a proton it is known that m р = 1.672∙10 -27 kg, R 1 = r р = 0.8751∙10 -15 m, then
qR = 2.19 π (ε 0 ) 1/2 u (m R 1 ) 1/2 = 0,6142∙10 4 [m 1/2 F 1/2 s -1 ] ∙ (1.672∙10 -27 [kg] ∙
0.8751∙10 -15 [m]) 1/2 = 0.743∙10 -17 Cl.
Thus, the electric charge of a proton qR= 0.743∙10 -17 Cl.
For an electron it is known that m e = 0.911∙10 -31 kg. To determine the radius of the electron, under the assumption that the structure of the electron is similar to the structure of the proton, and the ether flux density in the electron’s body is also equal to the ether flux density in the proton’s body, we use the known ratio between the masses of the proton and electron, which is equal to
m r / m e = 1836.15.
Then r r /r e = (m r /m e) 1/3 = 1836.15 1/3 = 12.245, i.e. r e = r r /12.245.
Substituting the data for the electron into expression (3) we get
q e = 0.6142∙10 4 [m 1/2 F 1/2 /s] ∙ (0.911∙10 -31 [kg] 0.8751∙10 -15 [m]/12.245) 1/2 =
0.157∙10 -19 Cl.
Thus, the electric charge of an electron quh = 0,157∙10 -19 Cl.
Proton specific charge
q р /m р = 0.743∙10 -17 [C] /1.672∙10 -27 [kg] = 0.444∙10 10 C /kg.
Specific electron charge
q e / m e = 0.157∙10 -19 [C] /0.911∙10 -31 [kg] = 0.172∙10 12 C /kg.
The obtained values of the electric charges of the proton and electron are estimates and do not have fundamental status. This is due to the fact that the geometric and physical parameters of the proton and electron in the proton-electron pair are interdependent and are determined by the location of the proton-electron pair in the atom of the substance and are regulated by the law of conservation of angular momentum. When the radius of the orbit of motion of the electron changes, the mass of the proton and electron and, accordingly, the speed of rotation around its own axis of rotation change accordingly. Since electric charge is proportional to mass, a change in the mass of a proton or electron will, accordingly, lead to a change in their electric charges.
Thus, in all atoms of a substance, the electric charges of protons and electrons differ from each other and have their own specific meaning, however, to a first approximation, their values can be estimated as the values of the electric charge of the proton and electron of the hydrogen atom, defined above. In addition, this circumstance indicates that the electric charge of an atom of a substance is its unique characteristic, which can be used to identify it.
Knowing the magnitude of the electric charges of a proton and electron for a hydrogen atom, one can estimate the electromagnetic forces that ensure the stability of the hydrogen atom.
According to the modified Coulomb's law, the electric force of attraction Fpr will be equal
Fpr = k (q 1 - q 2) 2 / r 2, at q 1 ≠ q 2,
where q 1 is the electric charge of a proton, q 2 is the electric charge of an electron, r is the radius of the atom.
Fpr =(1/4πε 0)(q 1 - q 2) 2 / r 2 = (1/4π 8.85418781762039 10 −12 F m −1)
- (0.743∙10 -17 C - 0.157∙10 -19 C) 2 /(5.2917720859·10 −11 ) 2 = 0.1763·10 -3 N.
In a hydrogen atom, an electric (Coulomb) force of attraction equal to 0.1763·10 -3 N acts on an electron. Since the hydrogen atom is in a stable state, the magnetic repulsive force is also equal to 0.1763·10 -3 N. For comparison, all scientific and educational literature provide a calculation of the force of electrical interaction, for example, which gives the result 0.923·10 -7 N. The calculation given in the literature is incorrect, since it is based on the errors discussed above.
Modern physics states that the minimum energy required to remove an electron from an atom is called the ionization energy or binding energy, which for a hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV. Let us estimate the binding energy of a proton and an electron in a hydrogen atom based on the obtained values of the electric charge of the proton and electron.
E St. = F pr ·r n = 0.1763·10 -3 · 6.24151·10 18 eV/m · 5.2917720859·10 −11 = 58271 eV.
The binding energy of a proton and an electron in a hydrogen atom is 58.271 KeV.
The obtained result indicates the incorrectness of the concept of ionization energy and the fallacy of Bohr’s second postulate: “ Light emission occurs when an electron transitions from a stationary state with higher energy to a stationary state with lower energy. The energy of the emitted photon is equal to the difference between the energies of stationary states.” In the process of excitation of a proton-electron pair under the influence of external factors, the electron is displaced (moved away) from the proton by a certain amount, the maximum value of which is determined by the ionization energy. After photons are generated by the proton-electron pair, the electron returns to its previous orbit.
Let us estimate the magnitude of the maximum electron displacement upon excitation of a hydrogen atom by some external factor with an energy of 13.6 eV.
The radius of the hydrogen atom will become equal to 5.29523·10 −11, i.e. it will increase by approximately 0.065%.
Electric charge of a photon. According to the etherodynamic concept, a photon is: an elementary particle, which is a closed toroidal vortex of densified ether with a ring motion of the torus (like a wheel) and a screw motion inside it, carrying out translational cycloidal motion (along a screw trajectory), caused by gyroscopic moments of its own rotation and rotation along a circular path and intended for energy transfer .
Based on the structure of the photon as a toroidal vortex body moving along a helical trajectory, where r γ λ is the outer radius, m γ λ is the mass, ω γ λ is the natural frequency of rotation, the electric charge of the photon can be represented as follows.
To simplify calculations, we assume the length of the ether flow in the photon body r = 2π r γ λ ,
u = ω γ λ r γ λ , r 0 λ = 0.2 r γ λ is the cross-sectional radius of the photon body.
q γ λ = (1/k) 1/2 ω γ λ r γ λ 2πr γ λ (m λ /V · V/2πr γ λ) 1/2 = (1/k) 1/2 ω γ λ r γ λ (m λ 2πr γ λ) 1/2 =
= (4πε 0) 1/2 ω γ λ r γ λ (m λ 2πr γ λ) 1/2 = 2π(2ε 0) 1/2 ω γ λ (m λ r 3 γ λ) 1/2 ,
q γ λ = 2 π (2 ε 0 ) 1/2 ω γ λ (m λ r 3 γ λ ) 1/2 . (4)
Expression (4) represents the photon’s own electric charge without taking into account the motion along a circular path. The parameters ε 0, m λ, r γ λ are quasi-constant, i.e. variables whose values change insignificantly (fractions of %) throughout the entire range of existence of the photon (from infrared to gamma). This means that the photon’s own electric charge is a function of the frequency of rotation around its own axis. As shown in the work, the ratio of the frequencies of a gamma photon ω γ λ Г to an infrared photon ω γ λ И is of the order of ω γ λ Г /ω γ λ И ≈ 1000, and the value of the photon’s own electric charge also changes accordingly. Under modern conditions, this quantity cannot be measured, and therefore has only theoretical significance.
According to the definition of a photon, it has a complex helical motion, which can be decomposed into motion along a circular path and rectilinear. To estimate the total value of the photon's electric charge, it is necessary to take into account the motion along a circular path. In this case, the photon’s own electric charge turns out to be distributed along this circular path. Taking into account the periodicity of motion, in which the step of the helical trajectory is interpreted as the wavelength of the photon, we can talk about the dependence of the value of the total electric charge of the photon on its wavelength.
From the physical essence of the electric charge it follows that the magnitude of the electric charge is proportional to its mass, and therefore to its volume. Thus, the photon’s own electric charge is proportional to the photon’s own body volume (V γ λ). Similarly, the total electric charge of a photon, taking into account its motion along a circular path, will be proportional to the volume (V λ) that will form a photon moving along a circular path.
q λ = q γ λ V λ /V γ λ = q γ λ 2π 2 R λ r 2 γ λ /2π 2 Lr 3 γ λ = q γ λ R λ / L 2 r γ λ ,
q λ = q γ λ R λ / L 2 r γ λ . (5)
where L = r 0γλ /r γλ is the photon structure parameter, equal to the ratio of the cross-sectional radius to the outer radius of the photon body (≈ 0.2), V T = 2π 2 R r 2 is the volume of the torus, R is the radius of the circle of rotation of the generatrix of the torus; r is the radius of the generatrix of the torus circle.
q λ = q γ λ R λ / L 2 r γ λ = 2π(2ε 0) 1/2 ω γ λ (m λ r 3 γ λ) 1/2 R λ / L 2 r γ λ ,
q λ = 2 π (2 ε 0 ) 1/2 ω γ λ (m λ r γ λ ) 1/2 R λ / L 2 . (6)
Expression (6) represents the total electric charge of the photon. Due to the dependence of the total electric charge on the geometric parameters of the photon, the values of which are currently known with a large error, it is not possible to obtain the exact value of the electric charge by calculation. However, its assessment allows us to draw a number of significant theoretical and practical conclusions.
For data from work, i.e. at λ = 225 nm, ω γ λ ≈ 6.6641·10 30 r/s,
m λ≈ 10 -40 kg, r γ λ ≈ 10 -20 m, R λ ≈ 0.179·10 -16 m, L≈ 0.2, we obtain the value of the total electric charge of the photon:
q λ = 0, 786137 ·10 -19 Cl.
The obtained value of the total electric charge of a photon with a wavelength of 225 nm is in good agreement with the value measured by R. Millikan (1.592·10 -19 C), which later became a fundamental constant, taking into account the fact that its value corresponds to the electric charge of two photons. Double the calculated electrical charge of the photon:
2q λ = 1.57227·10 -19 Cl,
in the International System of Units (SI), the elementary electric charge is equal to 1.602 176 6208(98) 10 −19 C. The doubled value of the elementary electric charge is due to the fact that the proton-electron pair, due to its symmetry, always generates two photons. This circumstance is experimentally confirmed by the existence of such a process as the annihilation of an electron - positron pair, i.e. in the process of mutual destruction of an electron and a positron, two photons have time to be generated, as well as the existence of such well-known devices as photomultipliers and lasers.
Conclusions. So, this work shows that electric charge is a fundamental property of nature, playing an important role in understanding the essence of elementary particles, atoms and other structures of the microworld.
The ether-dynamic essence of the electric charge allows us to provide a rationale for the interpretation of the structures, properties and parameters of elementary particles that differ from those known to modern physics.
Based on the ether-dynamic model of the hydrogen atom and the physical essence of the electric charge, calculated estimates of the electric charges of the proton, electron and photon are given.
The data for the proton and electron, due to the lack of experimental confirmation at the moment, are theoretical in nature, however, taking into account the error, they can be used both in theory and in practice.
The data for the photon are in good agreement with the results of known experiments on measuring the magnitude of the electric charge and justify the erroneous representation of the elementary electric charge.
Literature:
- Lyamin V. S., Lyamin D. V. Physical essence of electric charge.
- Kasterin N. P. Generalization of the basic equations of aerodynamics and electrodynamics
(Aerodynamic part). Problems of physical hydrodynamics / Collection of articles ed. Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR A.V. Lykova. – Minsk: Institute of Heat and Mass Transfer of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR, 1971, p. 268 – 308. - Atsyukovsky V.A. General ether dynamics. Modeling the structures of matter and fields based on ideas about gas-like ether. Second edition. M.: Energoatomizdat, 2003. 584 p.
- Emelyanov V. M. Standard model and its extensions. - M.: Fizmatlit, 2007. - 584 p.
- Close F. Introduction to quarks and partons. - M.: Mir, 1982. - 438 p.
- Akhiezer A I, Rekalo M P “Electric charge of elementary particles” UFN 114 487–508 (1974). .
- Physical encyclopedia. In 5 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Editor-in-chief A. M. Prokhorov. 1988.
Lyamin V.S. , Lyamin D. V. Lvov
Chapter 9. Elementary charges. Electron and proton
§ 9.1. Electromagnetic mass and charge. Question about the essence of charge
In Chapter 5, we found out the mechanism of inertia, explained what “inertial mass” is and what electrical phenomena and properties of elementary charges determine it. In Chapter 7 we did the same for the phenomenon of gravity and “gravitational mass”. It turned out that both the inertia and gravity of bodies are determined by the geometric size of elementary particles and their charge. Since geometric size is a familiar concept, such fundamental phenomena as inertia and gravity are based on only one little-studied entity - “charge”. Until now, the concept of “charge” is mysterious and almost mystical. At first, scientists dealt only with macroscopic charges, i.e. charges of macroscopic bodies. At the beginning of the study of electricity in science, ideas about invisible “electrical fluids” were used, the excess or deficiency of which leads to the electrification of bodies. For a long time, the debate was only about whether it was one liquid or two of them: positive and negative. Then they found out that there are “elementary” charge carriers, electrons and ionized atoms, i.e. atoms with an excess electron or missing electron. Even later, the “most elementary” positive charge carriers – protons – were discovered. Then it turned out that there are many “elementary” particles and many of them have an electric charge, and in terms of magnitude this charge is always
is a multiple of some minimum detectable portion of charge q 0 ≈ 1.602 10− 19 C. This
portion was called “elementary charge”. The charge determines the extent to which a body participates in electrical interactions and, in particular, electrostatic interactions. To date, there is no intelligible explanation of what an elementary charge is. Any reasoning on the topic that a charge consists of other charges (for example, quarks with fractional charge values) is not an explanation, but a scholastic “blurring” of the issue.
Let's try to think about charges ourselves, using what we have already established earlier. Let us remember that the main law established for charges is Coulomb’s law: the force of interaction between two charged bodies is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. It turns out that if we derive Coulomb’s law from any specific already studied physical mechanisms, we will thereby take a step in understanding the essence of charges. We have already said that elementary charges, in terms of interaction with the outside world, are completely determined by their electric field: its structure and its movement. And they said that after the explanation of inertia and gravity, there was nothing left in elementary charges except a moving electric field. And the electric field is nothing more than the disturbed states of vacuum, ether, plenum. Well, let's be consistent and try to reduce the electron and its charge to a moving field! We already guessed in Chapter 5 that a proton is completely similar to an electron, except for the sign of its charge and its geometric size. If, by reducing the electron to a moving field, we see that we can explain both the sign of the charge and the independence of the amount of charge of particles on size, then our task will be completed, at least to a first approximation.
§ 9.2. Strange currents and strange waves. Flat electron
First, let's consider an extremely simplified model situation (Fig. 9.1) of a ring charge moving along a circular path of radius r 0 . And let him in general
electrically neutral, i.e. in its center there is a charge of opposite sign. This is the so-called “flat electron”. We are not claiming that this is what a real electron is, we are just trying to understand for now whether it is possible to obtain an electrically neutral object equivalent to a free elementary charge in a flat, two-dimensional case. Let's try to create our charge from the associated charges of the ether (vacuum, plenum). Let, for definiteness, the charge of the ring be negative, and the ring moves clockwise (Fig. 9.1). In this case, the current I t flows counterclockwise. Let's select small
element of the ring charge dq and assign to it a small length dl. It is obvious that at each moment of time the element dq moves with tangential speed v t and normal acceleration a n. With such movement we can associate the total current of the element dI -
vector quantity. This value can be represented as a constant tangential current dI t, constantly “turning” its direction with the flow
time, that is, accelerated. That is, having normal acceleration dI&n. Difficulty
further consideration is due to the fact that until now in physics we have mainly considered alternating currents whose acceleration lay on the same straight line with the direction of the current itself. In this case, the situation is different: the current perpendicular to its acceleration. And what? Does this invalidate previously firmly established laws of physics?
Rice. 9.1. Ring current and its force effect on the test charge
Just as its magnetic field is associated with the elementary current itself (according to the Biot-Savart-Laplace law), so the acceleration of the elementary current is associated with the electric field of induction, as we showed in previous chapters. These fields exert a force action F on the external charge q (Fig. 9.1). Since the radius r 0 is finite, then the actions
The elementary currents of the right (according to the figure) half of the ring cannot be completely compensated by the opposite effect of the elementary currents of the left half.
Thus, between the ring current I and the external test charge q must
force interaction arises.
As a result, we found that we can speculatively create an object that, as a whole, will be completely electrically neutral in construction, but contain a ring current. What is a ring current in a vacuum? This is the bias current. You can imagine it as a circular motion of associated negative (or vice versa - positive) vacuum charges with complete rest of the opposite charges located
V center. It can also be imagined as a joint circular motion of positive and negative bound charges, but at different speeds, or along different radii or
V different sides... Ultimately, no matter how we look at the situation, it will be
reduce to a rotating electric field E, closed in a circle . This creates a magnetic field B, associated with the fact that currents flow and additional, not limited cr at hom electric field Eind , due to the fact that these currents accelerated.
This is exactly what we observe near real elementary charges (for example, electrons)! Here is our phenomenology of the so-called “electrostatic” interaction. Free charges (with fractional or other charge values) are not required to build an electron. It's enough just bound vacuum charges! Remember that according to modern concepts, a photon also consists of a moving electric field and is generally electrically neutral. If a photon is “bent” into a ring, then it will have a charge, since its electric field will now move not rectilinearly and uniformly, but accelerated. Now it is clear how charges of different signs are formed: if the field E in the “ring model” (Fig. 9.1) is directed from the center to the periphery of the particle, then the charge is of one sign, if vice versa, then of the other. If we open an electron (or positron), we create a photon. In reality, due to the need to conserve angular momentum, in order to turn a charge into a photon, you need to take two opposite charges, bring them together and ultimately get two electrically neutral photons. This phenomenon (annihilation reaction) is actually observed in experiments. So that's what a charge is - it's torque of electric field! Next, we will try to do formulas and calculations and derive Coulomb's law from the laws of induction applied to the case of alternating bias current.
§ 9.3. Coulomb's law as a consequence of Faraday's law of induction
Let us show that in a two-dimensional (flat) approximation, an electron in the electrostatic sense is equivalent to the circular motion of a current, which is equal in magnitude to the charge current q 0 moving along a radius r 0 with a speed equal to the speed of light c .
To do this, we divide the total circular current I (Fig. 9.1) into elementary currents Idl, calculate dE ind acting at the point where the test charge q is located, and integrate over the ring.
So, the current flowing in our case through the ring is equal to:
(9.1) I = q 0 v = q 0 c . 2 π r 0 2 π r 0
Since this current is curvilinear, that is, accelerated, it is
variables:
I. Misyuchenko |
God's Last Secret |
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dt 2 π r |
2πr |
|||||||
where a is the centripetal acceleration that each current element experiences when moving in a circle at speed c.
Substituting the expression known from kinematics for acceleration a = c 2, we obtain: r 0
q0 c2 |
||||||
2πr |
2 π r 2 |
|||||
It is clear that the derivative for the current element will be expressed by the formula:
dl = |
q0 c2 |
dl. |
|||||
2πr |
2 π r 2 |
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As follows from the Biot-Savart-Laplace law, each current element Idl creates an “elementary” magnetic field at the point where the test charge is located:
(9.5) dB = |
I[ dl , rr ] |
|||
From Chapter 4 it is known that the alternating magnetic field of an elementary current generates an electric one:
(9.6) dE r = v r B dB r = |
μ 0 |
|||||||||
I[dl,r] |
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Now let’s substitute into this expression the value of the derivative of the elementary circular current from (9.4):
dl sin(β) |
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dE = |
|||||||||||
2 π r 2 |
|||||||||||
It remains to integrate these elementary electric field strengths along the current contour, that is, over all dl that we have identified on the circle:
q0 c2 |
sin(β) |
r 2 ∫ |
sin(β) |
||||||||
E = ∫ dE = ∫ 8 π |
2 π r 2 |
dl = |
16 π 2 ε |
dl. |
|||||||
It is easy to see (Fig. 9.1) that integration over angles will give:
(9.9) ∫ |
sin(β) |
4 π r 2 |
|||
dl = 2 π r0 |
r 2 0 |
r 2 0 . |
Accordingly, the total value of the electric field strength of induction E ind from our curvilinear current at the point where the test charge is located will be equal.
Until the beginning of the 20th century, scientists believed that an atom was the smallest indivisible particle of matter, but this turned out to be wrong. In fact, at the center of the atom is its nucleus with positively charged protons and neutral neutrons, and negatively charged electrons rotate in orbitals around the nucleus (this model of the atom was proposed in 1911 by E. Rutherford). It is noteworthy that the masses of protons and neutrons are almost equal, but the mass of an electron is about 2000 times less.
Although an atom contains both positively and negatively charged particles, its charge is neutral, because an atom has the same number of protons and electrons, and differently charged particles neutralize each other.
Later, scientists found out that electrons and protons have the same amount of charge, equal to 1.6 10 -19 C (C is a coulomb, a unit of electric charge in the SI system.
Have you ever thought about the question - what number of electrons corresponds to a charge of 1 C?
1/(1.6·10 -19) = 6.25·10 18 electrons
Electric power
Electric charges influence each other, which manifests itself as electric force.
If a body has an excess of electrons, it will have a total negative electrical charge, and vice versa - if there is a deficiency of electrons, the body will have a total positive charge.
By analogy with magnetic forces, when like-charged poles repel and oppositely charged poles attract, electric charges behave in a similar way. However, in physics it is not enough to simply talk about the polarity of an electric charge; its numerical value is important.
To find out the magnitude of the force acting between charged bodies, it is necessary to know not only the magnitude of the charges, but also the distance between them. The force of universal gravitation has already been considered previously: F = (Gm 1 m 2)/R 2
- m 1, m 2- masses of bodies;
- R- the distance between the centers of the bodies;
- G = 6.67 10 -11 Nm 2 /kg- universal gravitational constant.
As a result of laboratory experiments, physicists derived a similar formula for the force of interaction of electric charges, which was called Coulomb's law:
F = kq 1 q 2 /r 2
- q 1, q 2 - interacting charges, measured in C;
- r is the distance between charges;
- k - proportionality coefficient ( SI: k=8.99·10 9 Nm 2 Cl 2; SSSE: k=1).
- k=1/(4πε 0).
- ε 0 ≈8.85·10 -12 C 2 N -1 m -2 - electrical constant.
According to Coulomb's law, if two charges have the same sign, then the force F acting between them is positive (the charges repel each other); if the charges have opposite signs, the acting force is negative (charges attract each other).
How enormous the force of a charge of 1 C is can be judged using Coulomb's law. For example, if we assume that two charges, each 1 C, are spaced at a distance of 10 meters from each other, then they will repel each other with force:
F = kq 1 q 2 /r 2 F = (8.99 10 9) 1 1/(10 2) = -8.99 10 7 N
This is a fairly large force, roughly comparable to a mass of 5600 tons.
Let's now use Coulomb's law to find out at what linear speed the electron rotates in a hydrogen atom, assuming that it moves in a circular orbit.
According to Coulomb's law, the electrostatic force acting on an electron can be equated to the centripetal force:
F = kq 1 q 2 /r 2 = mv 2 /r
Taking into account the fact that the mass of the electron is 9.1·10 -31 kg, and the radius of its orbit = 5.29·10 -11 m, we obtain the value 8.22·10 -8 N.
Now we can find the linear speed of the electron:
8.22·10 -8 = (9.1·10 -31)v 2 /(5.29·10 -11) v = 2.19·10 6 m/s
Thus, the electron of the hydrogen atom rotates around its center at a speed of approximately 7.88 million km/h.
An atom is the smallest particle of a chemical element that retains all its chemical properties. An atom consists of a nucleus, which has a positive electrical charge, and negatively charged electrons. The charge of the nucleus of any chemical element is equal to the product of Z and e, where Z is the serial number of this element in the periodic system of chemical elements, e is the value of the elementary electric charge.
Electron is the smallest particle of a substance with a negative electric charge e=1.6·10 -19 coulombs, taken as an elementary electric charge. Electrons, rotating around the nucleus, are located in the electron shells K, L, M, etc. K is the shell closest to the nucleus. The size of an atom is determined by the size of its electron shell. An atom can lose electrons and become a positive ion or gain electrons and become a negative ion. The charge of an ion determines the number of electrons lost or gained. The process of turning a neutral atom into a charged ion is called ionization.
Atomic nucleus(the central part of the atom) consists of elementary nuclear particles - protons and neutrons. The radius of the nucleus is approximately one hundred thousand times smaller than the radius of the atom. The density of the atomic nucleus is extremely high. Protons- these are stable elementary particles with a single positive electrical charge and a mass 1836 times greater than the mass of an electron. A proton is the nucleus of an atom of the lightest element, hydrogen. The number of protons in the nucleus is Z. Neutron is a neutral (having no electric charge) elementary particle with a mass very close to the mass of a proton. Since the mass of the nucleus consists of the mass of protons and neutrons, the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is equal to A - Z, where A is the mass number of a given isotope (see). The proton and neutron that make up the nucleus are called nucleons. In the nucleus, nucleons are connected by special nuclear forces.
The atomic nucleus contains a huge reserve of energy, which is released during nuclear reactions. Nuclear reactions occur when atomic nuclei interact with elementary particles or with the nuclei of other elements. As a result of nuclear reactions, new nuclei are formed. For example, a neutron can transform into a proton. In this case, a beta particle, i.e., an electron, is ejected from the nucleus.
The transition of a proton to a neutron in the nucleus can be carried out in two ways: either a particle with a mass equal to the mass of the electron, but with a positive charge, called a positron (positron decay), is emitted from the nucleus, or the nucleus captures one of the electrons from the K-shell closest to it (K -capture).
Sometimes the resulting nucleus has an excess of energy (is in an excited state) and, upon returning to the normal state, releases excess energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation with a very short wavelength - . The energy released during nuclear reactions is practically used in various industries.
An atom (Greek atomos - indivisible) is the smallest particle of a chemical element that has its chemical properties. Each element is made up of a specific type of atom. The atom consists of a nucleus, which carries a positive electric charge, and negatively charged electrons (see), forming its electron shells. The magnitude of the electric charge of the nucleus is equal to Z-e, where e is the elementary electric charge equal in magnitude to the charge of the electron (4.8·10 -10 electric units), and Z is the atomic number of this element in the periodic system of chemical elements (see .). Since a non-ionized atom is neutral, the number of electrons included in it is also equal to Z. The composition of the nucleus (see Atomic nucleus) includes nucleons, elementary particles with a mass approximately 1840 times greater than the mass of the electron (equal to 9.1 10 - 28 g), protons (see), positively charged, and neutrons having no charge (see). The number of nucleons in the nucleus is called the mass number and is designated by the letter A. The number of protons in the nucleus, equal to Z, determines the number of electrons entering the atom, the structure of the electron shells and the chemical properties of the atom. The number of neutrons in the nucleus is A-Z. Isotopes are varieties of the same element, the atoms of which differ from each other in mass number A, but have the same Z. Thus, in the nuclei of atoms of different isotopes of the same element there are different numbers of neutrons with the same number of protons. When denoting isotopes, the mass number A is written above the element symbol, and the atomic number below; for example, isotopes of oxygen are designated: 
The dimensions of an atom are determined by the dimensions of the electron shells and are for all Z a value of the order of 10 -8 cm. Since the mass of all electrons of an atom is several thousand times less than the mass of the nucleus, the mass of the atom is proportional to the mass number. The relative mass of an atom of a given isotope is determined in relation to the mass of an atom of the carbon isotope C12, taken as 12 units, and is called the isotope mass. It turns out to be close to the mass number of the corresponding isotope. The relative weight of an atom of a chemical element is the average (taking into account the relative abundance of isotopes of a given element) value of the isotopic weight and is called atomic weight (mass).
The atom is a microscopic system, and its structure and properties can only be explained using quantum theory, created mainly in the 20s of the 20th century and intended to describe phenomena on the atomic scale. Experiments have shown that microparticles - electrons, protons, atoms, etc. - in addition to corpuscular ones, have wave properties, manifested in diffraction and interference. In quantum theory, to describe the state of micro-objects, a certain wave field is used, characterized by a wave function (Ψ-function). This function determines the probabilities of possible states of a microobject, i.e., characterizes the potential possibilities for the manifestation of certain of its properties. The law of variation of the function Ψ in space and time (Schrodinger’s equation), which allows one to find this function, plays the same role in quantum theory as Newton’s laws of motion in classical mechanics. Solving the Schrödinger equation in many cases leads to discrete possible states of the system. So, for example, in the case of an atom, a series of wave functions for electrons corresponding to different (quantized) energy values is obtained. The system of atomic energy levels, calculated by the methods of quantum theory, has received brilliant confirmation in spectroscopy. The transition of an atom from the ground state corresponding to the lowest energy level E 0 to any of the excited states E i occurs upon absorption of a certain portion of energy E i - E 0 . An excited atom goes to a less excited or ground state, usually by emitting a photon. In this case, the photon energy hv is equal to the difference in the energies of the atom in two states: hv = E i - E k where h is Planck’s constant (6.62·10 -27 erg·sec), v is the frequency of light.
In addition to atomic spectra, quantum theory made it possible to explain other properties of atoms. In particular, valence, the nature of chemical bonds and the structure of molecules were explained, and the theory of the periodic table of elements was created.
